<p>Astove Atoll is a large atoll, part of the Aldabra Group, lying in the Outer Islands of Seychelles, with a distance of 1,041 km southwest of the capital, Victoria, on Mahé Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name Astove is said to be derived from the Portuguese As Doze Island, meaning the twelve islands, which may have been the original Portuguese name for Farquhar.</p><br>
<p>Much of the region in which Astove lies was explored by Arab seamen and merchants between 1000 and 1500 AD, but there is no record of human settlement on the island before 1760. In that year, the Portuguese frigate La Dom Royal, laden with plunder and slaves, went aground at Astove. All aboard made it to the island, but the captain and crew soon abandoned Astove and struck out for Mozambique in a long boat. They never returned for the slaves, who organized into a community and subsisted on the bounty of the island and the sea.</p><br>
<p>A passing ship reported that there was “a treasure trove of slaves” to be had for the taking from Astove, but repeated efforts to capture them failed when almost all the ships foundered, as had the La Dom Royal. In 1796, a British ship attempted to remove the slaves by force – and succeeded in embarking some 100 of them – but the slaves revolted and helped thwart the effort, which failed completely when the ship foundered. There was, reportedly, great loss of life in the shark-infested waters.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, treasure hunters found near Astove the wreckage of La Dom Royal. They excavated the ship, finding gold and silver.</p><br>
<p>The remaining slaves on Astove were eventually picked up and evacuated to Mahe, leaving one sole survivor named “Paul” on the island. In 1799, a passing ship stopped at Astove and a search was made for this lone slave, but no trace of him could be found.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of August 12, 1836, the ship Tiger of Liverpool, which was commanded by Captain Edward Searight, was wrecked on the reef of Astove atoll. An account by William Stirling was published seven years later.</p><br>
<p>Human presence at Astove remained inconsistent throughout the 19th century and centered largely upon harvesting operations that were under way at the time. Astove was heavily mined for guano and phosphates, and hunted for its sea turtles, but for the most part remained not visited due to its remoteness and distance from normal shipping lanes.</p><br>
<p>In 1968, Astove atoll was occupied by British adventurer and businessman Mark Veevers-Carter and his American wife, Wendy (Day) Veevers-Carter, who was the daughter of American author Clarence Day (Life With Father). The couple had founded, operated and sold a successful copra plantation on the Seychelles island of Remire, and sought to do the same on the much larger island of Astove.</p><br>
<p>“When we landed on Astove, we found palm trees, a roofless wooden house and a graveyard,” wrote Wendy Veevers-Carter. “Part of the British-governed Seychelles, Astove was a ‘lost’ island.”</p><br>
<p>The Veevers-Carters built a 14-room house, a processing center, a chapel, a store and small residences for their Seychelleois employees. While copra constituted the primary cash crop, the Veevers-Carters plantation also grew tobacco and raised, for subsistence, goats, cattle and pigs. The life of the couple and their three children were chronicled by Wendy Veevers-Carter in an article for Parade magazine in June 1969.</p><br>
<p>“Mark has had painful trouble with his teeth but has borne the agony stoically,” she wrote in the article. “He must see a dentist soon, but that will mean a trip of many days.”</p><br>
<p>Her husband’s dental problems necessitated a March 1970 journey to Kenya for medical treatment. He took with him the couple’s broken short-wave radio and one of their three children, leaving his wife and their two sons on the plantation at Astove. On March 11, the 42-year-old Veevers-Carter died under anesthesia in the dentist’s chair, but because there was no radio on Astove, word could not be quickly delivered to his wife.</p><br>
<p>Ten days after Veevers-Carter’s death, the news was delivered to his family by the Kenyan cement carrier Bamburi, which took them to Kenya.</p><br>
<p>Wendy Veevers-Carter tried to manage Astove alone until November 1970, but found the task impossible. Returning to the United States with her children, she left Astove in the care of three Seychellois employees. Although she expressed hope in maintaining control over and access to Astove, she never returned and the island was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>In 2014 Astove was declared a nature reserve. A fishing resort and lodge have been built on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Astove atoll is located 35 km SSE of Cosmoledo Atoll.</p><br>
<p>It is a raised coral island of most peculiar form: a single stretch of land, that is 1.4 km at the widest part, almost entirely encloses a shallow lagoon. The lagoon has a maximum depth of 3 m, and the only exit is a winding passage in the south, called Gueule Bras Channel. The lagoon includes some sandbanks and islands inside it.</p><br>
<p>Astove atoll measures 6 km north to south and 4 km east to west. The land area is 7.9 km&sup2, and the total area including the lagoon and reef is 21.2 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h3>List of islets</h3><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Astoves unusual structure has raised questions about its formation. It was suggested that Astove is not a true raised atoll, but rather a reef flat, with the lagoon being washed out later. The lagoon becomes deeper in a slow pace, owing to rainwater, acidic from the soils humic acids, dissolving the lagoons carbonate rock bottom. This causes the unusual milky-white color of the lagoons waters.</p><br>
<p>On the large land mass towards the western tip, exposed reef rock raises to some 5 m ASL. Elsewhere it is largely covered by gravelly debris. Dunes of up to 18 m line the windswept eastern rim of the island, and the eastern part of the lagoon is especially shallow due to the inblown dune sand. Astove Islands fringing reef is just about 180 m (300 ft) wide. As noted above, beyond the reefs outer edge the seafloor drops down steeply, with a depth of 550 m (300 fathoms) a mere 399 m away from the shoreline.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate is dominated by the southeast trade winds which are most pronounced between April and November. Temperatures are around 28 &deg;C in the shade during that time, and slightly higher during the northwest monsoon season. At that time, tropical cyclones with torrential rain sometimes hit the island, but overall it is very arid.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The only settlement, on the western coast, has been abandoned by the three Seychellois employees on 1972, but resettled in 2014. The remnants of a former coconut and sisal plantation are presence and attempts to maintain it are being made.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to Outer Islands District.</p><br>
<p>Being an island with a small population, there are not any government buildings or services. For many services, people have to go to Victoria, which is a difficult task.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The island is bisected by a 640 m unpaved grass airfield on the north east point of the island. The IDC put a staff of 2 people in 2014 to clear the airfield and restore the usage of it. The island is occasionally serviced by an Island Development Company (IDC) aircraft from Mahé.</p><br>
<h2>Economics</h2><br>
<p>The 2 inhabitants on the island are engaged in very small scale farming and fishing which are mainly for the island consumption, as well as managing the newly opened lodge.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>Astove atoll has a very thin soil layer overlying its rocky core, which is pockmarked with caverns. Guano of nesting seabirds has accumulated in these, and the western part has been worked over and some of the guano was mined in the past. Large stretches of the reef rock were stripped bare of vegetation, but some Pisonia grandis and white milkwood (Sideroxylon inerme) persisted. The general vegetation on much of the island&#39;s western side is herbaceous plants however, mainly the leadwort Plumbago aphylla, as well as Stachytarpheta species and the crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium pilosum. Coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) remaining from the struggling plantation along the western shore, sisal (Agave sisalana), and wild cotton (Gossypium) are also found here and there. Maize (Zea mays) was planted by the guano miners, but presumably this plant which depends on constant care has disappeared since.</p><br>
<p>The eastern dunes are overgrown with the dropseed grass Sporobolus virginicus near the sea, and on the higher parts bwa matlo (bay cedar, Suriana maritima) shrubs are found. In more sheltered places, a regular scrubland of vouloutye (Scaevola taccada) and tree heliotrope (Heliotropium foertherianum), with some Pisonia, occurs. Here, the main herbs are fimbries (Fimbristylis) and the parasitic vine Cassytha filiformis.</p><br>
<p>The flats around the lagoon show a mixture of grassland (mainly pembagrass, Stenotaphrum dimidiatum) and Pemphis acidula scrub; in places, it is difficult to penetrate to the lagoon through the mass of Pemphis and bwa matlo. Small grey mangroves (Avicennia marina) line much of the southern half of the lagoon rim.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Astove atoll is home to four landbirds:</p><br>
<p>Souimanga sunbird (Cinnyris sovimanga buchenorum) – an endemic race confined to Astove and Cosmoledo.</p><br>
<p>Madagascar cisticola (Cisticola cherina)</p><br>
<p>Pied crow (Corvus albus)</p><br>
<p>Madagascar white-eye (Zosterops maderaspatanus maderaspatanus)</p><br>
<p>There are few seabirds, probably due to the presence of rats and feral pigs. Unlike the other two atolls of the group, (Aldabra and Cosmoledo), there are no predator-free islets except for a few small sandbanks close to the lagoon entrance. At the lagoon, Caspian terns (Hydroprogne caspia) will often be seen but it is not known whether or not they ever breed on the sandbanks. Indopacific sooty terns (Onychoprion fuscatus nubilosus) and western black-naped terns (Sterna sumatrana mathewsi) have also been reported, but there are no confirmed breeding records. Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) remain very common here despite years of exploitation and remarkably high numbers will be seen on dives or from tender trips to the lagoon entrance close to high tide.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>In 2014 a Lodge was built. During that time, 15 Indian employees where living on the island. The 6-room lodge opened in 2015, and is managed by the IDC staff.</p><br>
<p>Today, the island is visited usually by scientists researching the lagoon&#39;s ecology, and by Fly-fishing cruises, and diving cruises to the near-vertical drop-off from its outer reef edge.</p><br>
<p>There are plans on expanding the eco-resort to 20 rooms.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Nufenen Pass   is the second highest mountain pass with a paved road within Switzerland - after Umbrailpass. It lies between the summits of Pizzo Gallina  and the Nufenestock .</p><br>
<p>The pass road from Ulrichen in canton of Valais leads to the Bedretto valley in the canton of Ticino, linking Brig to Airolo. It is not the lowest pass between the two valleys, as it is located one kilometre north of a slightly lower unnamed pass at 2,440 metres, which is traversed by a trail.</p><br>
<p>The pass is of relatively recent construction, having been opened to motor vehicle traffic only since September 1969.</p><br>
<p>To the east of the top of the pass is the source of the Ticino River. Towards the north is a spectacular view of the Bernese Alps, notably the Finsteraarhorn while there is a view over the Gries Glacier to the south.</p><br>
<p>Motya , was an ancient and powerful city on an island off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepanum  and Lilybaeum . The island was renamed San Pantaleo in the 11th century by Basilian monks. It lies in the Stagnone Lagoon, and is within the comune of Marsala.</p><br>
<p>The island is nearly 850 m long and 750 m wide, and about 1 km (six stadia) from the mainland of Sicily. It was joined to the mainland in ancient times by an artificial causeway (paved road), by which chariots with large wheels could reach the town.</p><br>
<p>The remarkable and exquisite Motya Charioteer marble sculpture found in 1979 is world famous and is on display at the local Giuseppe Whitaker museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The foundation of the city probably dates from the eighth century BC, about a century after the foundation of Carthage in Tunisia. It was originally a colony of the Phoenicians, who were fond of choosing similar sites, and probably in the first instance merely a commercial station or emporium, but gradually rose to be a flourishing and important town. The Phoenicians transformed the inhospitable island, which they called Motya, into one of the most affluent cities of its time, naturally defended by the lagoon as well as high defensive walls. Ancient windmills and salt pans were used for evaporation, salt grinding and refinement, and to maintain the condition of the lagoon and island itself. Recently the mills and salt pans (called the Ettore Infersa) have been restored by the owners and opened to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Greeks, however, according to their custom, assigned it a legendary origin, and derived its name from a woman named "Motya", whom they connected with the fables concerning Heracles. According to coin-finds the name "Motya" is derived from Phoenician Mtw and is said to mean "wool-spinning center". It passed, in common with the other Phoenician settlements in Sicily, at a later period under the government or dependency of Carthage, whence Diodorus calls it a Carthaginian colony; but it is probable that this is not strictly correct.</p><br>
<p>As the Greek colonies in Sicily increased in numbers and importance the Phoenicians gradually abandoned their settlements in the immediate neighbourhood of the newcomers, and concentrated themselves in the three principal colonies of Soluntum, Panormus (modern Palermo), and Motya. The last of these, from its proximity to Carthage and its opportune situation for communication with North Africa, as well as the natural strength of its position, became one of the chief strongholds of the Carthaginians, as well as one of the most important of their commercial cities in the island. It appears to have held, in both these respects, the same position which was attained at a later period by Lilybaeum.</p><br>
<p>Notwithstanding these accounts of its early importance and flourishing condition, the name of Motya is rarely mentioned in history until just before the period of its memorable siege. It is first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus, and Thucydides notices it among the chief colonies of the Phoenicians in Sicily, which still subsisted at the period of the Athenian expedition, 415 BC. A few years later (409 BC) when the Carthaginian army under Hannibal Mago landed at the promontory of Lilybaeum, that general laid up his fleet for security in the gulf around Motya, while he advanced with his land forces along the coast to attack Selinus. After the fall of the latter city, we are told that Hermocrates, the Syracusan exile, who had established himself on its ruins with a numerous band of followers, laid waste the territories of Motya and Panormus; and again during the second expedition of the Carthaginians under Hamilcar (407 BC), these two cities became the permanent station of the Carthaginian fleet.</p><br>
<h3>Siege of Motya</h3><br>
<p>It was the important position to which Motya had thus attained that led Dionysius I of Syracuse to direct his principal efforts to its reduction, when in 397 BC he in his turn invaded the Carthaginian territory in Sicily. The citizens on the other hand, relying on succour from Carthage, made preparations for a vigorous resistance; and by cutting off the causeway which united them to the mainland, compelled Dionysius to have recourse to the tedious and laborious process of constructing a mound or mole of earth across the intervening space. Even when this was accomplished, and the military engines of Dionysius (among which the formidable catapult on this occasion made its appearance for the first time) were brought up to the walls, the Motyans continued a desperate resistance; and after the walls and towers were carried by the overwhelming forces of the enemy, still maintained the defence from street to street and from house to house. This obstinate struggle only increased the previous exasperation of the Sicilian Greeks against the Carthaginians; and when at length the troops of Dionysius made themselves masters of the city, they put the whole surviving population, men, women, and children, to the sword.</p><br>
<p>After this, the Syracusan despot placed it in charge of a garrison under an officer named Biton, while his brother Leptines of Syracuse made it the station of his fleet. But the next spring (396 BC) Himilcon, the Carthaginian general, having landed at Panormus with a very large force, recovered possession of Motya with comparatively little difficulty. Motya, however, was not destined to recover its former importance; for Himilcon, being apparently struck with the superior advantages of Lilybaeum, founded a new city on the promontory of that name, to which he transferred the few remaining inhabitants of Motya.</p><br>
<p>From this period the latter altogether disappears from history; and the little islet on which it was built, has probably ever since, as now, been inhabited only by a few fishermen. By the time the Romans conquered Sicily, during the First Punic War (264–241 BC), Motya had been eclipsed by Lilybaeum.</p><br>
<p>It is a singular fact that, though we have no account of Motya having received any Greek population, or fallen into the hands of the Greeks before its conquest by Dionysius, there exist coins of the city with the Greek legend "ΜΟΤΥΑΙΟΝ". They are, however, of great rarity, and are apparently imitated from those of the neighboring city of Segesta.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>During the Middle Ages, Basilian monks settled on the island and renamed it San Pantaleo, and in 1888 was rediscovered by Joseph Whitaker.</p><br>
<h2>Current situation</h2><br>
<p>The site of Motya, on which earlier geographers were in much doubt, has been clearly identified and described by William Henry Smyth. Between the promontory of Lilybaeum (Capo Boéo) and that of Aegithallus (San Teodoro), the coast forms a deep bight, in front of which lies a long group of low rocky islets, called the Stagnone. Within these, and considerably nearer to the mainland, lies the small island formerly called San Pantaleo, on which the remains of an ancient city may still be distinctly traced. Fragments of the walls, with those of two gateways, still exist, and coins as well as pieces of ancient brick and pottery – the never failing indications of an ancient site – were found scattered throughout the island. The circuit of the latter does not exceed 2.5 km, and it is inhabited only by a few fishermen; but is not devoid of fertility. The confined space on which the city was built agrees with the description of Diodorus that the houses were lofty and of solid construction, with narrow streets (στενωποί) between them, which facilitated the desperate defence of the inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The island of Mozia is owned and operated by the Whitaker Foundation (Palermo), famous for Marsala wines. Tours are available for the small museum, and the well-preserved ruins of a crossroads civilisation: in addition to the cultures mentioned above, Motian artifacts display Egyptian, Corinthian, Attic, Roman, Punic and Hellenic influences. The Tophet, a type of cemetery for the cremated remains of children, possibly (but not entirely proven) as sacrifice to Tanit or Ba‘al Hammon, is also well known. Many of the ancient residences are open to the public, with guided tours in English and Italian.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The beautiful Motya Charioteer sculpture found in 1979 is on display at the Giuseppe Whitaker museum. It is a rare example of a victor of a chariot race who must have been very wealthy in order to commission such a work. It was found built into Phoenician fortifications which were quickly erected before Dionysios I of Syracuse invaded and sacked Motya in 397 BC.</p><br>
<p>Its superb quality implies that it was made by a leading Greek artist in the period following their defeat of the Persians, but its style is unlike any other of this period. It is believed it must have been looted from a Greek city conquered by Carthage in 409-405 BC.</p><br>
<p>In March 2006, archaeological digs uncovered rooms of a previously undiscovered house at one of the town&#39;s siege walls. The finds have shown that the town had a "thriving population long after it is commonly believed to have been destroyed by the Ancient Greeks." Discovered items include cooking pans, Phoenician-style vases, altars, and looms.</p><br>
<h2>In Modern Fiction</h2><br>
<p>The 399 BC Battle of Motya, part of the war of Syracuse&#39;s tyrant Dionysios I against Carthage is a major event in the 1965 historical novel "The Arrows of Hercules" by L. Sprague de Camp.</p><br>
<p>Red Screes is a fell in the English Lake District, situated between the villages of Patterdale and Ambleside. It may be considered an outlier of the Fairfield group in the Eastern Fells, but is separated from its neighbours by low cols. This gives Red Screes an independence</p><br>
<p>which is reflected in its prominence.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Red Screes is a ridge of high ground which runs for nearly 7 km in a north north-easterly direction from the town of Ambleside, and reaches a maximum height of 776 m. This ridge narrows at either end, giving it the shape of a long upturned boat. It is separated from neighbouring fells by Scandale Pass to the west (c.516 m) and Kirkstone Pass to the east (455 m). These two low cols mean that Red Screes is seen as an independent fell when viewed from the south of the Lake District. They also give the fell sufficient prominence to be classified as a Marilyn. There are two minor subsidiary tops: Snarker Pike (644 m) on the south ridge and Middle Dodd (654 m) on the north ridge. Each of these, however, has very little prominence above the ridge (less than 10 m).</p><br>
<p>Red Screes forms part of the main watershed of the Lake District, which runs in an east-west direction across the summit and the two adjacent cols. All streams to the north eventually flow into the Solway Firth, and those to the south flow into Morecambe Bay. The boundaries of Red Screes are formed by the four streams in the adjacent valleys. To the south, Scandale Beck drains the western slopes and Stock Ghyll the eastern ones. These both join the River Rothay a few yards apart just to the west of Ambleside. To the north, Caiston Beck drains the western slopes and Kirkstone Beck the eastern ones, and these join where they reach more level ground at the end of the ridge. Thus the boundaries of Red Screes are formed symmetrically by four valleys, with the fell between them, rather than rising at the head of any one of them.</p><br>
<p>The broad southern ridge rises gently for four and a half kilometres from Ambleside. The lower slopes have been planted with small areas of mixed woodland and are extensively compartmentalised by an array of dry stone walls. North of the summit, the ridge narrows at Smallthwaite Band, before widening again to the summit of Middle Dodd. Beyond this, the descent is steep and rough though mainly grassy.</p><br>
<p>The western flanks are also rough, mainly grassy with some rock outcrops, rising steeply from Scandale and from Caiston Glen. The eastern side has been eroded by two steep corries (known at coves in Cumbria). These give it a more rocky appearance, with two miles of screeslope looming above almost the full length of Kirkstone Pass, and well seen from the A592 road which crosses the pass. It is from this view that the fell takes its name. Prominent on Ordnance Survey maps is Kilnshaw Chimney, although in reality this is just a narrow gully beneath the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit area is a broad plateau with a dressing of grass and stones. Two unnamed corries are cut into the eastern face and between them a flat topped promontory juts out with the highest point on its northern edge. A number of large cairns have been built and an Ordnance Survey triangulation column stands nearby. Adjacent to that is a circular stone shelter. A few yards to the south is Red Screes Tarn, a small permanent waterbody with no plant life in evidence. A number of smaller pools can be found after rain. The view is excellent in all directions. Helvellyn is seen to good advantage, beyond the crags of Dove Crag and Fairfield and over Deepdale Hause. High Street and the Far Eastern Fells are seen over the immediate bulk of Caudale Moor. To the west the skyline is formed by the distant Coniston, Bowfell and Scafell fells. The immediate view down the eastern face to the Kirkstone Inn is spectacular.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Well-used paths approach the summit from four directions. From the south a track up the southern ridge gives convenient access directly from Ambleside, leaving the road towards ‘The Struggle’ about one mile north-east of the town. This leads over Snarker Pike before reaching the summit. From the east a very steep and winding path straight up from Kirkstone Pass is very popular with visitors. Considerable erosion to this path has been repaired by laying stone blocks along much of its length. From the west the path from Scandale Pass gives an easier approach, and may be gained from either Ambleside, or from the north via Caiston Glen. From the north a more direct approach over Middle Dodd is possible, but the way is very steep and unmarked. A path appears near the top of Middle Dodd, and then leads along the northern ridge to the summit of Red Screes.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>All the rocks of Red Screes are part of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, formed on the margin of an ancient continent during a period of intense volcanic activity during the Caradoc epoch of the Ordovician period, roughly 450 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The lowest (and oldest) rocks, around the base of the fell and on the southern half of the south ridge, belong to the Seathwaite Fell Sandstone Formation. This consists mainly of deposits of bedded volcaniclastic sandstone and siltstone, deposited rapidly in shallow water at a late stage during the volcanic activity. South of Snarker Pike there are more than 800 m of these sediments. Interbedded pyroclastic rocks vary from thin beds of fine tuff to thick units of breccia, and reveal some ongoing volcanic activity during the period of deposition.</p><br>
<p>Overlying those deposits are rocks of the Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation, found on the eastern and western sides of the fell and the top of the southern ridge. These rocks are predominantly dacitic lapilli-tuff, interpreted as welded ignimbrite. Interbeds of thin tuff and of volcaniclastic sandstone occur. This formation is the most widespread in the volcanic rocks of the Lake District; it seems that the whole district was buried beneath at least 150 m (and in places up to 800 m) of densely welded ignimbrite. It must have been a series of eruptions of truly exceptional magnitude, as viscous and highly gaseous silica-rich magma exploded on eruption.</p><br>
<p>Intrusions of the Borrowdale Sill Suite are found on Red Screes within both the rock formations just described. These andesite sills were intruded during the volcanic activity of the Caradoc Epoch, and may represent one of the last episodes when magma rose to or near the surface that is preserved in the volcanic rocks of the Lake District.</p><br>
<p>Overlying the Lincomb Tarns Formation are rocks of the Esk Pike Sandstone Formation. On Red Screes these are found high on the northern ridge. In this area the formation consists of alternating thick pebbly sandstone beds and thin beds of finer-grained sandstone and mudstone. These represent a return to water-borne sedimentation in an environment of rivers and lakes.</p><br>
<p>The highest and youngest rocks of the Borrowdale volcanic sequence found on Red Screes belong to the Middle Dodd Dacite Formation, on and north of the top of Middle Dodd, and with a small area along the edge of the northern corrie of Red Screes. The rock is white-weathered dacite lava, and was formed by the eruption of viscous or semi-mobile lava rich in silica from a steep-sided volcano, perhaps filling in hollows on an old erosion surface.</p><br>
<p>Drift deposits of glacial till derived from the last ice-age have accumulated on the lower slopes of Red Screes, and on the top of the ridge.</p><br>
<h2>Mining and quarrying</h2><br>
<p>Kirkstone Quarry (named Pets Quarry on Ordnance Survey maps) is prominent on the southeast side of Red Screes, below Kirkstone Pass. It has produced green and blue-black slate for building and architectural purposes. The quarry went into administration in 2012. At present Burlington Stone markets three types of stone called Kirkstone Brathay Blue/Black, Kirkstone Sea Green and Kirkstone Silver Green. Quarrying took place within the Seathwaite Fell Sandstone Formation. The green slate was formed from fine-grained sedimentary rock within that formation, which was later metamorphosed to form slate.</p><br>
<p>The remains of a small quarry on the western slopes of the fell can still be seen. This was used to extract stones for wall-building, and even the remains of a sled-track exist, leading down to a series of field walls in Scandale.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence of mining in Caiston Glen, with the mouth of a level opening about halfway up the beck. This was an unsuccessful trial for lead and extends about 80 ft into the fellside. There is a further small working nearby.</p><br>
<p>There are also the remains of a trial for copper on the eastern flank, a 120-foot level being driven into the fell from close to the modern road.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>Red Screes is an example of a fell which has taken the name of one of its sides. The screes which cover the steep eastern slopes above the Kirkstone Pass appear to have a reddish colouration.</p><br>
<p>Snarker Pike is probably ‘snake peak’ from Old English snaca, a snake, plus pike. In 1764 its name was recorded as Snake Pike. Originally it may have been Snake How (from snaca plus dialect how(e), a hill or mound), which became contracted to Snarker and then had ‘pike’ added. though adders are not uncommon in the Lake District. Pike is a dialect work for a peak or summit, from either Old English pīc or Old Norse pík. This is frequently used for the summit of a fell, and then for the fell itself. Some of these names are ancient, but many are more modern.</p><br>
<p>Middle Dodd is the central of the three dodds as seen from Hartsop Hall: (Low) Hartsop Dodd, Middle Dodd and High Hartsop Dodd. These names have nothing to do with relative heights but refer to their positions in the valley. Dod or dodd is a dialect word of unknown origin, but common in hill names in the Lake District and the Scottish Borders for bare rounded summits, either free standing or subsidiary shoulders to higher neighbours.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Saiful Muluk  is a mountainous lake located at the northern end of the Kaghan Valley, near the town of Naran. It is in the north east of Mansehra District in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan and feeds water to Kunhar river. At an elevation of 3,224 m  above sea level, it is well above the tree line, and is one of the highest lakes in Pakistan.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Jeeps at Lake Saif Ul Muluk.</p><br>
<p>Saiful Muluk is located in the Mansehra district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, about eight kilometers north of Naran, in the northern part of Kaghan valley. Malika Parbat, the highest peak in the valley is near the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake is accessible from the nearby town of Naran during the summer season but access during winter is limited.</p><br>
<h2>Physical features</h2><br>
<p>Saiful Muluk was formed by glacial moraines that blocked the water of the stream passing through the valley. The Kaghan Valley was formed in the greater Pleistocene Period dating back almost 300,000 years when the area was covered with ice. Rising temperatures and receding glaciers left a large depression where glaciers once stood. Melting water collected into the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The lake has rich eco-diversity and holds many species of blue-green algae. Large brown trout are found in the lake, up to about seven kilograms. About 26 species of vascular plant exist in the area, with Asteraceae the most commonly found species. Other species commonly found in the region are: Ranunculaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Gramineae, Apiaceae, Leguminosae, Scrophulariaceae and Polygonaceae.</p><br>
<h2>Folklore</h2><br>
<p>A fairy tale called Saif-ul-Muluk, written by the Sufi poet Mian Muhammad Bakhsh, talks of the lake. It tells the story of the prince of Persia named Shahzada Saif Ul Malook who fell in love with a fairy princess named Shehzadi Badr-ul-Jamal at the lake.</p><br>
<p>Maloja Pass   is a high mountain pass in the Swiss Alps in the canton of Graubünden, linking the Engadine with the Val Bregaglia, still in Switzerland and Chiavenna in Italy. It marks the watershed between the Danube and Po basins.</p><br>
<p>The road from Chiavenna to Silvaplana with distances and elevation:</p><br>
<p>0 km Chiavenna 333 m</p><br>
<p>10 km Castasegna (Italian-Swiss border) 696 m</p><br>
<p>13 km Promontogno 802 m</p><br>
<p>16 km Stampa 994 m</p><br>
<p>18 km Borgonovo 1029 m</p><br>
<p>19 km Vicosoprano 1065 m</p><br>
<p>27 km Casaccia 1458 m</p><br>
<p>32 km Maloja Pass 1815 m</p><br>
<p>33 km Maloja 1809 m</p><br>
<p>40 km Sils im Engadin/Segl 1798 m</p><br>
<p>44 km Silvaplana 1802 m</p><br>
<p>The Maloja Pass is open in winter. However, after heavy snowfalls the road may be closed for a couple of hours or for an entire day. Even if open, the road might be covered with snow making snow/winter tires, or chains, a necessity.</p><br>
<p>Umbrail Pass  is a high mountain pass on the Swiss-Italian border connecting Santa Maria in Val Müstair with Bormio in the Adda valley. On the Italian side, it connects to the Stelvio Pass road. It is currently the highest paved road in Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>The sign at the top of the pass gives its altitude as 2,503 meters above sea level, but the reference level for Swiss altitude measurements has changed since the sign was erected, leaving 2,501 meters as the correct value according to current methods.</p><br>
<p>The pass is named after the "Piz Umbrail", a nearby mountain peak.</p><br>
<p>The road is entirely asphalted since 2015. The last unpaved section was a 1.5 km stretch on the Swiss side between altitudes 1 883 m and 2 012 m.During 2017 Giro d&#39;Italia Umbrail Pass was reached during the stage from Rovetta to Bormio.</p><br>
<p>The African Meeting House, also known variously as First African Baptist Church, First Independent Baptist Church and the Belknap Street Church, was built in 1806 and is now the oldest black church edifice still standing in the United States. It is located in the Beacon Hill neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, adjacent to the African-American Abiel Smith School. It is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Church</h3><br>
<p>Before 1805, although black Bostonians could attend white churches, they generally faced discrimination. They were assigned seats only in the balconies and were not given voting privileges.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Paul, an African-American preacher from New Hampshire, led worship meetings for blacks at Faneuil Hall. Paul, with twenty of his members, officially formed the First African Baptist Church on August 8, 1805. In the same year, land was purchased for a building. The African Meeting House, as it came to be commonly called, was completed the next year. At the public dedication on December 6, 1806, the first-floor pews were reserved for all those "benevolently disposed to the Africans," while the black members sat in the balcony of their new meeting house.</p><br>
<h4>Ministers</h4><br>
<p>Thomas Paul, c. 1805–1829</p><br>
<p>John Peck, c. 1830</p><br>
<p>Washington Christian, c. 1831</p><br>
<p>Thomas Ritchie, c. 1832</p><br>
<p>Samuel Gooch, c. 1833–1834</p><br>
<p>John Given, c. 1835</p><br>
<p>Armstrong W. Archer, c. 1837</p><br>
<p>George H. Black, c. 1838–1840</p><br>
<p>John T. Raymond, c. 1841–1845</p><br>
<p>William B. Serrington, c. 1848–1849</p><br>
<p>William Thompson, c. 1851–1853</p><br>
<p>Thomas Henson, c. 1856–1858</p><br>
<p>J. Sella Martin, c. 1860–1862</p><br>
<p>H. H. White, c. 1864</p><br>
<h3>School (1806–1835)</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1800s, Primus Hall had established a school in his home. He sought funding from the community, including African-American sailors, to pay for expenses to run the school. Unsuccessful in attempts to establish a public school with the city of Boston in 1800, he moved his school to the African Meeting House by 1806. Hall continued fund-raising to support the African-American school until 1835.</p><br>
<p>Besides inspiring Boston&#39;s African Americans to pursue justice and quality in education, the school offered them opportunities for employment and economic growth, which in turn provided funds for future generations of African-American Bostonians to pursue higher education.</p><br>
<p>The Abiel Smith School was built in 1834 following the donation of $2,000 by Abiel Smith. The primary and grammar school was the first building built as a public school for African Americans in the country. In 1835, all black children in Boston were assigned to the Smith school, which replaced the basement school in the African Meeting House.</p><br>
<h3>Civic activities (1832 and Civil War)</h3><br>
<p>The African Meeting House became known as the Black Faneuil Hall during the abolitionist movement. On January 6, 1832, William Lloyd Garrison founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society here. During the Civil War, Frederick Douglass and others recruited soldiers here for the 54th and 55th Massachusetts Regiments.</p><br>
<h3>Synagogue (late 19th century – 1972)</h3><br>
<p>At the end of the 19th century, when the black community began to migrate to the South End and Roxbury, the building was sold to a Jewish congregation, Anshei Lubavitch. They were the new immigrants in the city and living on Beacon Hill and in the North End. It served as a synagogue until 1972, when it was acquired by the Museum of African American History and adapted as a museum.</p><br>
<h3>Museum (c. 1972–present)</h3><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974.</p><br>
<p>The African Meeting House houses the Museum of African American History, which is a museum "dedicated to preserving, conserving and accurately interpreting the contributions of African Americans in New England from the colonial period through the 19th century," according to the Museum&#39;s website. The African Meeting House is open to the public. This site is part of Boston African American National Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and remodeling</h2><br>
<p>Funds for the African Meeting House were raised in both the white and black communities. Cato Gardner, a native of Africa, was responsible for raising more than $1,500 toward the total $7,700 to complete the meeting house. A commemorative inscription above the front door reads: "Cato Gardner, first Promoter of this Building 1806." Scipio and Sylvia Dalton also helped organize and raise money to build the church.</p><br>
<p>Although the building committee was able to secure $2,500 for the church, the congregation and the committee were compelled to ask the Massachusetts legislation for funds to complete construction. This funding request required an accounting of persons who worked on and supplied materials to the construction project and documents that both African-American and white laborers contributed to it. This accounting lists, for example, that the white carpenter Amos Penniman worked on the African Meeting House. This research has not yet located this document, but it does substantiate that Abel Barbadoes did masonry work on the building, as Chloe Thomas, then a resident of the Home for Aged Colored Women, told George Ruffin in 1883:</p><br>
<p>"I heard from the lips of some of our most honored fathers, Cato Gardner, Father Primus Hall, Hamlet Earl, Scipio Dalton, Peter G. Smith, G.H. Holmes, that George Holmes made the first hod to carry bricks and mortar that was ever used in Boston. He invented it for the purpose of carrying bricks and mortar to build our meeting house with as he was a mason and calculated to do his part to the best of his ability. And Boston Smith, father of P.G. Smith, with the rest of his devoted brothers, was anxious to do all in his power. As Boston Smith was a master builder, he led the carpentry department...Abel Barbadoes, being a master mason also assisted. He was the father of Mrs. Catherine Barbadoes at 27 Myrtle Street."</p><br>
<p>The façade of the African Meeting House is an adaptation of a design for a townhouse published by Boston architect Asher Benjamin. In addition to its religious and educational activities, the meeting house became a place for celebrations and political and anti-slavery meetings. The African Meeting House was remodeled by the congregation in the 1850s.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers is a greenhouse and botanical garden that houses a collection of rare and exotic plants in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California. With construction having been completed in 1879, it is the oldest building in the park. It was one of the first municipal conservatories constructed in the United States and is the oldest remaining municipal wooden conservatory in the country. For these distinctions and for its associated historical, architectural, and engineering merits, the Conservatory of Flowers is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the California Register of Historical Places. It is a California Historical Landmark and a San Francisco Designated Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural description</h2><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers is an elaborate Victorian greenhouse with a central dome rising nearly 60 ft high and arch-shaped wings extending from it for an overall length of 240 ft. The building sits atop a gentle slope overlooking Conservatory Valley. The structural members are articulated through one predominant form, a four-centered or Tudor arch.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers consists of a wood structural skeleton with glass walls set on a raised masonry foundation. The entire structure has a shallow E-shaped plan that is oriented along an east-west axis. The central 60 ft high pavilion is entered through a one-story, glassed-in vestibule with a gable roof on the south side of the pavilion. Flanking the rotunda to the east and west are one-story, symmetrical wings framed by wood arches. Each wing is L-shaped in plan, with cupolas adorning the intersection of the two segments.</p><br>
<p>The octagonal pavilion supports an arched roof that is, in turn, surmounted by a clerestory and dome. The clerestory is supported by eight free-standing, wood-clad, cast-iron columns located within the rotunda and grouped in pairs. Projecting from the pavilion roof on the east, west, and south elevations are dormer windows with peak roofs. Between major arched structural framing members are wood muntins that hold the glass lights on their sides. The lights lap one over one another like shingles and follow the curve of the arches.</p><br>
<p>The construction of each arch is aesthetically appealing in its simplicity, but also structurally clever in that it takes maximum advantage of wood as a building material while overcoming its inherent structural shortcomings. From a structural perspective, the arch design utilizes the mechanical properties of the material. Wood is strongest along the length of the grain and weakest along the end grain. The use of short arch components with shallow radii minimized the amount of weaker-end grain exposed to structural forces. The assembly of the arch with several small pieces of wood, the shapes of which are identical from arch to arch, was efficient. It allowed the fabricator to set machines with guides and templates so that cutting the multiple-arch components was a simple task. Furthermore, the design required little material, since each individual arch component has only a shallow radius. Moreover, by using relatively narrow widths of lumber, the chance of warping was minimized. Finally, there was an efficiency realized in transportation, as the small size of the arch components allowed them to be easily stored and shipped.</p><br>
<p>The structural wood arches and their method of construction, along with the decorative woodwork and unique lapped glazing, define the character of the conservatory. The major character-defining elements consist of ornamental and structural woodwork, including the method of fabrication used for the arches, the lapped glazing system, the ventilation system, and the building’s siting and exterior landscaping.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Conservatory kit was bought by James Lick, an eccentric businessman, piano maker, and successful real estate investor who was a patron of the sciences. It was intended for the City of San Jose, where Lick had built a mansion surrounded by exotic plants imported from South America and around the world. Lick died in 1876 before constructing the conservatory on his estate, and it was put up for sale by his trustees. The kit was then purchased by a group of prominent San Franciscans, including Leland Stanford and Charles Crocker, who offered it as a gift to the City of San Francisco for use in Golden Gate Park. The Parks Commission accepted the gift and hired Lord & Burnham, a greenhouse manufacturing company from New York, to supervise the erection of the structure. Once open, it contained a large variety of rare and tropical plants, including a giant water lily, Victoria regia, which at the time was the only known specimen in the United States.</p><br>
<h3>Historic context</h3><br>
<p>In both Europe and America, the 19th century brought increased urbanization and industrialization. In response, city governments began providing open spaces and natural settings for public use. The profession of Landscape Architecture expanded during the later part of the 19th century, and park design became a large part of this new profession’s repertoire. In addition, a significant outgrowth of the need for natural surroundings in urban contexts was an increase in the study of plant sciences during this period, both by professionals and amateurs. A building type called the glasshouse or conservatory took shape, in which the city-dweller could view masterpieces of the plant world otherwise unavailable in urban environments. Municipalities and individuals spent a great deal of time and money to construct these building types, which became known as “theaters of nature.”</p><br>
<p>Similar conservatories were constructed across Europe, starting in the early 19th century. Perhaps the most well known of these is the Palm House in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London. These structures were enjoyed by a broad cross-section of the public. Following European fashions, wealthy Americans began to construct conservatories in the mid-19th century on private estates.</p><br>
<h4>Historic material developments</h4><br>
<p>The 19th-century glasshouse grew out of the city-dweller’s desire to bring nature and the natural into urban life. These structures became popular in urban, public, and semi-public settings. As these structures gained popularity in Europe, greenhouses began to be constructed on larger scales and of stronger materials. One engineer, Joseph Paxton (1803–1865), had an enormous effect on the development of the conservatory building type. His structures called for a system of glass and metal roof construction, whereas past structures had typically been constructed of wood and glass. His choice of materials allowed designs for glasshouses of substantially larger scales. His best-known example is the Crystal Palace at the world’s first International Exhibition in 1851. Elsewhere in Europe, Hector Horeau designed several conservatories of glass and iron, such as the Lyons Conservatory in France of 1847. In Germany, August von Voit designed the Great Palm House in the Old Botanical Gardens in Munich in 1860.</p><br>
<p>The increased use of glass and iron as building materials also impacted the development of the glasshouse. The decades following the debut of the Crystal Palace saw a decline in the use of wood structural members for the construction of large European greenhouses or conservatories. Many manufacturers had found that the humid heat necessary to successfully propagate numerous plant varieties often destroyed wood structural members in short periods of time.</p><br>
<h4>Historic material use in California</h4><br>
<p>Conservatories were popular throughout California’s early history. Structures of various shapes and sizes were built in Victorian California, ranging from an attached and glassed-in wing for a residence, to a great domed or compartmentalized, detached glasshouse. Examples of wealthy Californians who built conservatories in their private estates include: A.K.P. (Albion Keith Paris) Harmon, for his Oakland Lake Merritt Estate (which later became Lakeside Park); Frederick Delger; Frank M. Smith; Darius Ogden Mills (Millbrae); and Luther Burbank, for his own experiments with plant germination (Santa Rosa). This is not surprising, as agriculture was fast becoming an important part of the state’s economy and horticulture an important aspect of the gentleman’s education. In each of these cases, wood was substituted for metal as the framing members. This posed special challenges for the ongoing maintenance and repair of the greenhouses in the long term.</p><br>
<h4>Wood vs. iron</h4><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers was constructed of wood rather than iron, as was common in the later part of the 19th century, because wood was plentiful in the west. Cast-iron greenhouses do not appear to have been widely manufactured in America until the 1880s.</p><br>
<p>Other known American wood conservatories of this period included Lyndhurst in Tarrytown, New York. The Lyndhurst Conservatory, constructed in 1869 of wood by the estate’s first owner George Merritt, was destroyed by fire in 1880. The estate’s second owner, Jay Gould, rebuilt the conservatory in 1881, hiring the firm of Lord & Burnham to manufacture his greenhouse. The 1881 Lord & Burnham structure was composed primarily of cast iron and glass. The Gould Conservatory at Lyndhurst is credited with being the first conservatory of iron in the United States and with inspiring subsequent structures of the same material. After their success with the Gould Conservatory of 1881, Lord & Burnham and other conservatory manufacturers apparently produced few large conservatories of wood.</p><br>
<p>Lord & Burnham and other manufactures of conservatories found that the humid heat necessary to successfully propagate numerous plant varieties often destroyed wood structural members in short periods of time.</p><br>
<h3>Conservatory origins</h3><br>
<p>It is widely believed that the building was fabricated in England and shipped around Cape Horn to California. However, different sources have stated that it originated in England, France, or Ireland, but no primary records have confirmed these statements. Materials analysis suggests that the structural wooden members were constructed of indigenous California Coast Redwood.</p><br>
<p>Despite its prominence as a San Francisco landmark, no primary source has been found that clearly identifies the origin of the Conservatory of Flowers. Contributing to the confusion is erroneous information, based upon misunderstanding of the building or a cursory review of historic documentation that has appeared in print. Some historic documentation infers that the building was imported. Since it was common for conservatories to be shipped far from the place of manufacture, one could be led to conclude that this was the case with the Conservatory of Flowers. However, there is no historic information to substantiate the importation of the structure.</p><br>
<h4>Assessment of California manufacture</h4><br>
<p>Despite a range of published information to the contrary, physical evidence suggests that the Conservatory of Flowers was constructed originally of redwood and milled on the West Coast. This hypothesis is supported by the historical data concerning California manufacturing capabilities during the 1870s. This data indicates that other buildings of equal complexity were being manufactured from redwood during this period.</p><br>
<p>As part of the architectural investigation conducted by Architectural Resources Group in 1998, wood samples were taken from various locations throughout the building, and the majority found were coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). The samples that were not redwood came from window sash and areas of the building known to have been repaired previously with Douglas fir. In addition, through visual inspection, it was determined that there was a significant amount of redwood in the building despite the various repair campaigns that occurred throughout the years.</p><br>
<h4>Architect</h4><br>
<p>No primary document has been uncovered to indicate the architect of the Conservatory of Flowers. It is possible that the plans uncovered at Lick’s estate were produced by Lord & Burnham, the major manufacturer of greenhouses at the time. The Conservatory of Flowers bears resemblance to many of Lord & Burnham’s other contemporary structures, one of which was purchased by D.O. Mills, a trustee of James Lick, in 1872. Numerous printed articles described the conservatory as “modeled after those in the Kew Gardens, London.”</p><br>
<p>The San Francisco Public Library also holds a document entitled Information about Samuel Charles Bugbee, written by a relative, Arthur S. Bugbee, in 1957. It indicates that the architect, Samual Charles Bugbee, whose works included the homes of Leland Stanford and Charles Crocker and the Mendocino Presbyterian Church, also included the Conservatory of Flowers. Unfortunately, there are no primary source materials that have been uncovered that confirm Bugbee’s involvement in the design process.</p><br>
<h4>Lord & Burnham</h4><br>
<p>There is direct evidence that the New York firm of Lord & Burnham was contracted by the Park commissioners to construct the Conservatory of Flowers. Although Lord & Burnham supervised construction of the Conservatory of Flowers in Golden Gate Park, no primary evidence has been found to suggest or confirm their involvement in the manufacture of the building.</p><br>
<h3>Construction of the Conservatory of Flowers</h3><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers was an indirect gift of philanthropist James Lick. There is little surviving evidence that details the construction of the Conservatory of Flowers. Records indicate the construction costs were roughly $30,000.</p><br>
<h4>Construction statistics</h4><br>
<p>The conservatory has 16,800 window panes. The upper dome of the conservatory weighs 14.5 tonnes.</p><br>
<p>Langley’s San Francisco Directory for the Year Commencing April 1879 discussed the construction of the Conservatory of Flowers:</p><br>
<p>The whole building required in its construction twenty-six thousand square feet of glass weighing twenty-five tons, and two tones of putty. It is a marvel of architectural beauty, surpassing in this respect any similar construction in the United States, and is only equaled in size by the Government Conservatory of in the Horticultural Gardens at Washington.</p><br>
<h2>Repair campaigns</h2><br>
<p>In general, it appears that after 1914 most maintenance work was undertaken only when conditions presented a safety hazard, mechanical systems were in need of repair, or the building became extremely unsightly. Lack of scheduled maintenance affects the performance of building materials. Wood, in particular, requires proper maintenance of paint coatings to control the development of rot. In this building, it is important to maintain the condition of the interior, as well as exterior, coatings because of the humid indoor environment. Also necessary is the maintenance of waterproofing details, such as flashing, to prevent water from accumulating in concealed areas. It is therefore not surprising that rot developed in the building, and significant repairs to the wood elements of the building were necessary over time, given its somewhat irregular maintenance history.</p><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>In the first years after the conservatory was constructed, ongoing maintenance was necessary for both the structure and its collection. This included repairing the boilers in the furnace room, the installation of ventilators, and the installation of a cement floor. At this point, the conservatory held over 9,000 plants of various kinds.</p><br>
<h3>1883 fire</h3><br>
<p>In January 1883, the Conservatory caught fire, with the main dome sustaining the heaviest damage. Evidence suggests the fire started as the result of intense heat generated by the furnace. Charles Crocker donated $10,000 toward the repair fund. The reconstructed dome included the addition of a clerestory. The original dome was saucer-shaped, while the replacement dome was more classically domical in its appearance. The other major change was the finial, which prior to the fire consisted of an eagle figure, whereas the replacement feature is a traditional turned finial of wood. This has been the only major change in the overall form of the building during its lifetime.</p><br>
<h3>The remainder of the nineteenth century</h3><br>
<p>Records indicate ongoing maintenance included painting in 1887-1889 and repainting again in 1890. In 1894, the conservatory’s surrounding landscaping saw numerous transformations in preparations for the California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894. The Conservatory again was repainted in 1899 and received new floors of grooved concrete. At this point, the old floors, some of wood and some of concrete, were replaced by new grooved concrete. The grooves in the floor were intended to carry off the surplus water and make a visit to the conservatory more comfortable and pleasant. Several wooden plant benches that had rotted out were replaced by benches made of concrete wire netting to stand the constant change of temperature better than wood.</p><br>
<h3>The 1906 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>The San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906 did little damage to the Conservatory of Flowers. The structure is visible in a number of photographs of refugees living in Golden Gate Park after the disaster. However, records indicate that reconstruction costs ensued to the surrounding landscape from refugees living in the park.</p><br>
<h3>Early twentieth-century repairs</h3><br>
<p>Minor repairs were made to the Conservatory of Flowers in 1912 and 1913, including carpentry, cement setting for plant benches, and other small repairs. In 1918 a fire, commencing in the furnace room, caused damage to the conservatory’s Potting Room and adjacent Dome Room. Repairs were made as needed.</p><br>
<h3>Depression Era decline</h3><br>
<p>During the Depression, the Conservatory of Flowers, due to apparent lack of maintenance, was in poor condition. The Park commissioners instructed the superintendent of Parks to close the Conservatory of Flowers in 1933 and construct proper barricades to prevent possible injury to citizens. The woodwork, foundations, girders, posts, and various structural members became rotted and decayed to such an extent that certain portions of the conservatory were reported to be in danger of falling and potentially causing great injury.</p><br>
<h3>Post-War era</h3><br>
<p>In August 1946, the Conservatory of Flowers was painted and reglazed. A new electrical system, which allowed automatic control of the heating system for all of the conservatory, was installed in 1948. New piping was installed in 1949. A new water supply was installed in 1956.</p><br>
<p>In 1959, the original doors at the wing entrances were replaced with plate-glass windows and concrete panels. That same year, the lower ventilators at the building’s perimeter were removed, and concrete panels, cast in the profile of the ventilators, were installed. This unfortunately seriously compromised the building’s natural ventilation system. A few minor repairs were made in 1962 and 1965.</p><br>
<p>A major rehabilitation project took place between 1978 and 1981. Work included the removal of all interior and exterior caps of the arches for visual inspection and probing, in order to detect pockets of wood rot. The portions of arches showing surface wood rot were treated with ‘Git-Rot’, a wood preservative. The caps that remained in good condition were salvaged and reinstalled.</p><br>
<p>Building evidence suggests that the exterior surfaces of the arches were originally fitted with copper flashing. The flashing was secured onto the arches and covered by the wood caps. In most locations that were inspected, the flashing had been removed, leaving only short remnants at random locations. The flashing was rolled up and taken away during the 1982 restoration effort. The flashing was an effective method of preventing moisture from entering the joints in the arch assembly, and its removal hastened deterioration. During this restoration as well, various deteriorated wood elements were replaced with pressure-treated, glue-laminated members.</p><br>
<h2>Millennium rehabilitation</h2><br>
<p>During the winter of 1995-1996, a series of large storms exacerbated the ongoing deterioration of the wood structure. The 100-mph winds blew out 30,000 fogged white glass panes in the conservatory, shattered the white glass dome, and weakened the structure. In addition, 15 percent of the plant collection was lost due to exposure to the cold, wintry air and flying glass. After covering the holes with tarp and plywood and bringing in heaters, the conservatory contemplated farming out hundreds of plants to other institutions while the building was repaired. Some specimens however were too big or too old to move. The most challenging plant was the 112-year-old Brazilian philodendron that inhabited the shattered dome. A greenhouse was built to house the philodendron and other plants during renovation and afterwards used for expansion and keeping more exotic plants.</p><br>
<p>The conservatory was placed on the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. The Fund aimed to encourage repair rather replacement of the original fabric, and provided funding from financial services company American Express. In 1998, the National Trust for Historic Preservation adopted the conservatory into its Save Americas Treasures program, launched as part of First Lady Hillary Clintons Millennium Council projects. The publicity from these efforts eventually led to a fundraising campaign to raise the $25 million needed for rehabilitation, restoration, and stabilization of the Conservatory. The construction lasted from 1999 until 2003. On September 20, 2003, the restored conservatory was once again opened to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Repair methodology</h3><br>
<p>Between November 1996 and January 1997, on-site surveys were conducted by a project team consisting of Tennebaum-Manheim Engineers and Architectural Resources Group. Surveyors included architects, materials conservators, architectural historians, structural engineers, mechanical engineers, and electrical engineers. The architectural and materials condition survey included a close-range visual inspection of all of the wood members in the building to determine locations of deteriorated wood, an analysis of the types of wood species occurring in the building, a study of the building’s construction details, glazing, and a photographic survey. The structural survey included measuring the deflection of each of the arches and studying the probable lateral and vertical load paths to determine areas of weakness.</p><br>
<h3>Survey findings</h3><br>
<p>The deterioration of wood occurred at typically vulnerable areas, such as the exposed end grain of arches and muntins and where wood members intersect. The humidity in the building was a contributing factor to wood deterioration. The level of moisture in the building was exacerbated by two conditions. First, the building’s natural ventilation system had been removed in a past repair. The ventilators, which were originally located in the low wall area, had been filled in, and some ridge ventilators were inoperable. The air flow through the ventilators, which would have assisted in the evaporation of water, was not occurring. Second, the penetration of rain water from the exterior of the building, because of inadequate or deteriorated waterproofing, had increased the level of moisture in the wood. The copper sheathing that had originally capped the arch exteriors, in addition to acting as a moisture barrier, may have been acting as a biocide through copper oxides inhibiting wood rot.</p><br>
<h3>Repair process</h3><br>
<p>Due to the level of deterioration and concerns relating to the building’s long-term maintenance, a scheme was used to restore the wood structure. This involved disassembling the structure, repairing salvageable materials, and replacing materials deteriorated beyond repair with old-growth redwood that had fallen naturally or had been left behind by loggers. This was possible due to the original method used to fabricate the structure.</p><br>
<p>The construction sequence was as follows. First, temporary protection for those plants that could not be moved was provided. Then, the glass was carefully removed from the building, and historic glazing was salvaged. Structural wood elements of the building (arches), as well as muntins that held the glazing, were disassembled. The location of each element was recorded for reinstallation. The lead-based coatings were stripped from the wood members. Each wooden piece was then tested for its strength and determined if repair or replacement was appropriate.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Today, the conservatory contains approximately 1,700 plant species. Representative plants from its collections include:</p><br>
<p>Lowland Tropics Gallery - palms, cycads, banana, chocolate, cinnamon, coffee, taro, and vanilla, as well as plants that are over 100 years old, including Dioon spinulosum, Philodendron speciosum, and Phoenix roebelinii.</p><br>
<p>Highland Tropics Gallery - comprehensive collection of high-altitude orchids (pleurothallids) native to mid-elevations in Central and South America, as well as tree ferns, impatiens, Dracula spp., and Vireya Rhododendrons.</p><br>
<p>Aquatic Gallery - Nepenthes spp., bromeliads, water lilies.</p><br>
<p>Potted Plants Gallery - various potted plants displayed on benches.</p><br>
<p>Special Exhibit Gallery - themed temporary exhibit changes each April and November</p><br>
<p>Clerodendrum ugandense, blue butterfly bush</p><br>
<p>Roland Park is the first planned "suburban" community in North America, located in Baltimore, Maryland. It was developed between 1890 and 1920 as an upper-class streetcar suburb. The early phases of the neighborhood were designed by Edward Bouton and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Jarvis and Conklin, a Chicago investment firm, purchased 500 acres of land near Lake Roland in 1891 and founded the Roland Park Company with $1 million in capital. Not long after, the Panic of 1893 forced Jarvis and Conklin to sell the Roland Park Company to the firm of Stewart and Young. Despite the dire economics after 1893, Stewart and Young continued investment in the development.</p><br>
<p>The Roland Park Company hired Kansas City developer Edward H. Bouton as the general manager and George Edward Kessler to lay out the lots for the first tract. They hired the Olmsted Brothers to lay out the second tract, and installed expensive infrastructure, including graded-streets, gutters, sidewalks, and constructed the Lake Roland Elevated Railroad. The company consulted George E Waring, Jr. to advise them on the installation of a sewer system. Bouton placed restrictive covenants on all lots in Roland Park. These included setback requirements and proscriptions against any business operations.</p><br>
<p>Bouton and some Baltimore investors purchased the interests of Roland Park and reorganized the company in 1903.</p><br>
<p>Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. cited Roland Park as a model residential subdivision to his Harvard School of Design students. Duncan McDuffie, developer of St. Francis Wood in San Francisco, called Roland Park "an ideal residential district." Jesse Clyde Nichols had found inspiration in Roland Park when he was planning the Country Club District of Kansas City. Nichols continued to refer to Roland Park as an ideal residential development when he counselled other residential developers.</p><br>
<h2>Roland Park Shopping Center</h2><br>
<p>Roland Park Shopping Center is a single building strip of stores which opened in 1907 to serve the community, located at the corner of Upland Road and Roland Avenue. It has been credited by Guinness World Records as the world&#39;s first shopping center (though some editions of Guinness incorrectly date it to 1896). Since it had only six stores, despite it being an important milestone, larger shopping centers such as the Country Club Plaza (1923) in Kansas City, Missouri have received more attention as being "first," depending on what definition is used.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood is within the bounds of Baltimore City Public Schools and is assigned to Roland Park Elementary/Middle School, a K-8 school that earned the Blue Ribbon for Academic Excellence from the state department of education.</p><br>
<p>There are several private schools in the neighborhood: Friends School of Baltimore, Gilman School, Roland Park Country School, the Bryn Mawr School, Cathedral School, and Boys Latin School of Maryland. In addition, St. Marys Seminary and University is located in Roland Park.</p><br>
<p>There is also a branch of the Enoch Pratt Free Library in Roland Park.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Baltimore Light Rail&#39;s Cold Spring Lane Station is within walking distance of much of the neighborhood, just across the Jones Falls Expressway to the west.</p><br>
<p>Kraków Old Town is the historic central district of Kraków, Poland. It is one of the most famous old districts in Poland today and was the center of Poland&#39;s political life from 1038 until King Sigismund III Vasa relocated his court to Warsaw in 1596.</p><br>
<p>The entire medieval old town is among the first sites chosen for the UNESCOs original World Heritage List, inscribed as Cracows Historic Centre. The old town is also one of Poland&#39;s official national Historic Monuments (Pomnik historii) chosen in the first round, as designated September 16, 1994, and tracked by the National Heritage Board of Poland.</p><br>
<p>The Old Town is known in Polish as Stare Miasto. It is part of the city&#39;s first administrative district which is also named "Stare Miasto," although it covers a wider area than the Old Town itself.</p><br>
<p>Medieval Kraków was surrounded by a 1.9 mile (3 km) defensive wall complete with 46 towers and seven main entrances leading through them. The fortifications around the Old Town were erected over the course of two centuries. The district features the centrally located Rynek Główny, or Main Square, the largest medieval town square of any European city. There is a number of historic landmarks in its vicinity, such as St. Marys Basilica (Kościół Mariacki), Church of St. Wojciech (St. Adalberts), Church of St. Barbara, as well as other national treasures. At the center of the plaza, surrounded by kamienice (row houses) and noble residences, stands the Renaissance cloth hall Sukiennice (currently housing gift shops, restaurants and merchant stalls) with the National Gallery of Art upstairs. It is flanked by the Town Hall Tower (Wieża ratuszowa).</p><br>
<p>The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland. The Route begins at St. Florian&#39;s Church outside the northern flank of the old city walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz; passes the Barbican of Kraków (Barbakan) built in 1499, and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate. It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square, and up Grodzka to Wawel, the former seat of Polish royalty overlooking the Vistula river.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century most of the Old Town fortifications were demolished. The moat encircling the walls was filled in and turned into a green belt known as Planty Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first mention of Kraków dates back to the second half of the 9th century. By the end of 10th century the city was incorporated into the Polish state under the rule of Piast dynasty. The episcopal bishopric was awarded to Kraków in 1000 and around that time, it became the residence of Polish kings for centuries to come. The history of the old city of Kraków revolves mainly around its Old Town District of today. Here, the regalia were stored and, back in early Middle Ages, a cathedral school was erected.</p><br>
<p>Around 700 A.D., local tribes initiated the process of forming the Vistulan State by uniting with each other. Numerous remains of a once massive earth embankment encircling Wawel Hill survived till this day. A chest with 4,200 iron axes weighing about 4 tons was found in a basement of a house at Kanoniczna 19 street. These axes were commonly known under the name of "płacidłos" which is a word derived from the Polish verb "płacić" – to pay. As it happens the axes were a main legal tender in the neighboring Great Moravian State. The value of the treasure chest is the greatest to be discovered thus far and testifies to Krakóws significant wealth and power in the region. At Wawels foot, in the place where now Kanoniczna, Grodzka and other neighboring streets are located, remains of a Vistulan settlement called Okół were found. This settlement, the beginnings of which can be dated at least back to the early 9th century, was surrounded by an enormous oak palisade and, in the place where now the Straszewska and St. Gertrudes streets run, by one of Vistulas arms. Near Main Market Square – specifically near Church of St. Wojciech and Church of St. Mary and Bracka street - another discovery was made. Found were the relics of craft workshops and of dwelling houses which were originally raised near Vistula. What is more, under St. Wojciechs Church parts of a wooden temple were discovered. In those days Vistula had many arms which in turn formed several little islands in Krakóws center. Kazimierz was one of such islands. It is also possible that Okół, Wawel and the Main Market Square were islands separated from the main land by moats or Vistula&#39;s arms. Also, many structures were found on Wawel but it is extremely difficult to establish when they were built.</p><br>
<p>The bishops residing at Wawel and the princes court provided a strong intellectual atmosphere. Since the 14th century, Kraków was the site of royal coronations. Under Casimir III the Great the Jagiellonian University, one of Europes oldest institutions of higher learning, was founded.</p><br>
<p>In 1386 the Polish throne was entrusted to Lithuanian prince Władysław Jagiełło, husband of Queen Jadwiga. Jagiełło founded the next Polish dynasty, the Jagiellon dynasty. Kraków instantly became the capital of a large monarchy which propelled the city&#39;s political and cultural development. Many great artists did their work in Kraków at that time.</p><br>
<h3>Renaissance</h3><br>
<p>The Old Town saw considerable development during the Renaissance. It was then when, for instance, Wawel Cathedral was rebuilt to include the architectural features of the Italian Reneissance. Bona Sforza, the second wife of Sigismund I of Poland, asked Bartolommeo Berrecci, Francisco the Florentian, Giovanni Maria Padovano, Santi Gucci and others to do this task. As a result, Kanoniczna Street became a part of the Old Town. It carries many features that are typical for that period. With the passing of the last Jagiellon king, the political life of Poland began to move to Warsaw.</p><br>
<h3>Baroque</h3><br>
<p>The Baroque Era emerged in the beginning of the 17th century. In Poland Sigismund III became a prominent patron of the arts. Under his direction, architect Giovanni Trevano worked in Kraków and redesigned the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in a Baroque style. During that period the Old Town was destroyed twice during a Swedish invasion. Towards the end of the 17th century, the Church of St. Anne was built as was the Church of St. Casimir the Prince, known for its catacombs.</p><br>
<p>During the first half of the 18th century, some outstanding works of art were created by fine architects including Kacper Bażanka and Franciszek Placidi. The culture of the Baroque era left a lasting mark on this part of the city. Gothic churches were converted into the spirit of the Baroque era and were fitted with new altars, sculptures, and paintings.</p><br>
<p>In 1794, the armies of Tadeusz Kościuszko rallied to defend Poland against foreign partitions. The Kościuszko Uprising ended with their defeat, and in 1795 Poland underwent its final partition, after which Kraków became a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In spite of these political developments, Kraków in a sense remained important for Polish patriots. The city&#39;s many cultural monuments became national memorials and the only representation of national identity for the next century.</p><br>
<h3>Foreign rule</h3><br>
<p>In the 19th century, Austrian Emperor Franz I decided to liquidate the long neglected city fortifications. The liquidation was carried out during the time of the Duchy of Warsaw. Thanks to the efforts of Professor Feliks Radwański, the northern part of the walls were saved, including the Barbican, the Florian Gate and three towers which once marked the starting point of the Royal Road along which a new monarch would parade to the place of his coronation at Wawel Cathedral. The Planty Park was created in the place of the destroyed fortifications.</p><br>
<p>During this period the Juliusz Slowacki Theatre was constructed. It is located at Holy Ghost Square. The theatre was built in place of an old hospital that was run by the Order of the Holy Ghost. The building is an example of the Polish Eclectic architectural style. In 1850 a fire spread through the city and caused substantial damages.</p><br>
<p>In 1876 prince Władysław Czartoryski gave the city some of his artistic and patriotic collections. Three years later, the National Museum in Kraków was established. Kraków became the centre of museology in Poland. Famous artists such as Jan Matejko and Stanisław Wyspiański worked in the Old Town, which was also the place where numerous political independence movements were born.</p><br>
<h3>Wartime</h3><br>
<p>On September 6, 1939, German forces entered Kraków. The city became the capital of the General Government. The oppression of Jews began and a concentration camp was created in Plaszow. The Old Town was plundered and many works of art were stolen. Museums, schools and theatres were closed. Professors were arrested. Jewish synagogues were devastated, despoiled of ceremonial objects and turned into storehouses for ammunition, firefighting equipment and Nazi general storage sites.</p><br>
<p>On January 18, 1945 the Soviet forces of the 2nd Ukrainian Front under the command of Marshal Ivan Konev entered Kraków and forced the German army to withdraw. Kraków emerged as a city in the newly established People&#39;s Republic of Poland.</p><br>
<h2>The Old Town today</h2><br>
<p>Today the Old Town attracts visitors from all over the world. The historic centre is one of 14 places in Poland that are included on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The architectural design of the Old Town has survived many cataclysms of the past and has retained the original form that was established in medieval times.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the year the Old Town is lively and crowded. There are many tourists, indefatigable florists, and lined up horse-drawn carriages waiting to give a ride. The place is always vibrant with life especially in and around the Main Market Square, one of the biggest squares in Europe, which came into existence when the city was given Magdeburg Rights in 1257. Tourist attractions such as the Town Hall Tower, the Sukiennice (also known as the Cloth Hall), old tenements with fine shops, and Adam Mickiewicz Monument are all located there. While near the monument, one can listen to the heynal, which is played each hour from the highest tower of St. Mary&#39;s Church.</p><br>
<p>There are many cafes, pubs and clubs, which are located in medieval basements and cellars with vaulted ceilings. The most famous places include "Wierzynek" Restaurant and Club "Pod Jaszczurami". Numerous events, concerts and exhibitions are organized there.</p><br>
<p>Obwarzanki krakowskie, or twisted ring-shaped breads, are undoubtedly a symbol of Kraków. On the Square there is a obwarzanki seller every few steps. Traditional obwarzanki are sprinkled with poppy-seeds. Today, sellers offer a whole variety of them; apart from poppy-seed there are also sesame seed, rock salt and even pizza sprinkles. One can eat them while strolling or in a horse-drawn carriage while cruising around and glancing at yet another symbol of the old city, namely Kraków pigeons. One can also come across various buskers and mimes.</p><br>
<p>Numerous legends purport to explain the presence of numerous pigeons on the Main Square. According to one legend, Henry IV Probus, who tried to take over the Senioral Province during the period of regional disintegration of Poland, attempted to go to Rome with financial offerings in order to gain papal approval for his coronation. However, a certain enchantress turned his knights into pigeons. They pecked out some pebbles from the walls of St. Mary&#39;s Church, which then turned into gold. With these riches the prince set off to Vatican, but while on his way he lost everything and never managed to reach his destination. He returned to Kraków. None of his knights ever regained a human form.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural monuments</h2><br>
<p>The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art. Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków&#39;s palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings.</p><br>
<h3>Museums and theatres</h3><br>
<p>Many renowned points of interest in the Old Town, drawing constant stream of visitors, include galleries as well as departments of the National Museum in Kraków such as the Sukiennice Museum, the Jan Matejko Manor, Stanisław Wyspiański Museum at 11 Szczepanska, Czartoryski Museum with Arsenal at 19 Św. Jana Street, as well as the Historical Museum of Kraków (Rynek Główny 35) with its departments: the Barbican, the House under the Cross housing History of Theatre museum, Hippolitow House, Town Hall Tower, Archdiocesean Museum and Archeological Museum. There are also: the Pharmacy Museum, Collegium Modicum at Jagiellonian University, the Old Theatre Museum and the renowned Collegium Maius Museum of the Jagiellonian University, including the Palace of Bishop Erazm Ciołek (on Kanoniczna). Two major theatres are also located there: the Old Theatre, and the most famous Juliusz Słowacki Theatre.</p><br>
<h3>Churches</h3><br>
<p>The extended list of Catholic churches in the Old Town include: Church of St. Andrew, Church of St. Ann, Church of St. Barbara, Church and Monastery of Franciscans, Church of St. Giles, St. Johns The Baptist and St. Johns The Evangelist Church, Reformatory Church of St. Casimir, Church of Our Lady of Snows, Church of St. Martin, Church of St. Mary, Church of St. Marc, St. Peters and Pauls Church, Pijary Church, Church of St. Tomas, St. Trinity Church (Dominican Church) and Church of St. Wojciech.</p><br>
<h3>Sculptures</h3><br>
<p>The Old Town district has a profusion of bronze statues and marble monuments. The most pronounced is the Monument of Adam Mickiewicz situated at the Main Marketplace between the St. Marys Church and the eastern side of Sukiennice. It was unveiled for the centenary of Adam Mickiewiczs birth. The poet is surrounded by four lower groups which symbolize: Homeland i.e. Poland (from the face of the monument), Science – an old man with a boy (from the side of Florianska Street), Poetry (from the side of the Church of St. Wojciech), and Patriotism and Valour (facing Sukiennice). The monument was designed by Teodor Rygier, cast in Rome, and ceremonially unveiled on 16 June 1898. It is a key part of the Market Square panorama and a place of meetings for many young people.</p><br>
<p>Other well known monuments include: the monument commemorating the poet Józef Bohdan Zaleski at Basztowa Street, showing harpist with a guide boy, made in 1886 by Pius Welonski; the Monument of Jagiello and Jadwiga at Planty Park, made by Tomas Oscar Sosnowski and raised in 1886 in celebration of the quincentenary of the Union between Poland and Lithuania; and the Monument of Lilia Weneda at Planty Park, erected to commemorate poet Juliusz Slowacki showing a character from the poet&#39;s drama playing a harp, made by Alfred Daun in 1884. Across from the Palace of Art stands the Monument of Artur Grottger made by Waclaw Szymanowski in 1901. Monument of Piotr Skrzynecki is in front of the Vis-á-vis café on the Main Market Square. The monument of Jozef Dietl on the All Saints’ Square was made by Ksawery Dunikowski in 1938 and erected in honor of the first president of Kraków. The monument to Aleksander Fredro is featured in front of the Slowacki Theatre, near the Planty Park. It was made by Professor Cyprian Godebski in 1900.</p><br>
<p>Along Planty – near the Collegium Novum – is the monument to astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus depicting him as an established scholar. It was made by Godebski in 1900. Grażyna Monument at Planty Park presents characters from Adam Mickiewiczs novel entitled "Grażyna" (Grażyna and Litawor). It was made by Alfred Daun in 1884. Monument of Florian Straszewski also at Planty Park is an obelisk erected in honor of co-originator of the Park and made by Edward Stehlik in 1874. The bust of comedy writer Michał Bałucki made by Tadeusz Błotnicki in 1911 is located behind the Juliusz Slowacki Theatre. The Soviet Soldiers’ Graveyard monument situated near the Barbican till 1997 was later moved to Rakowicki Cemetery. Monument to Unknown Soldiers who fell during the Krakóws liberation in 1945 was made by Karol Muszkiet and Marcin Bukowski in 1945. Sculpture entitled "Polonia" near the Church of Franciscans presents the mother, holding a baby in her arms, with a weasel and two dogs. It was made by Genowefa Nowak in 1968. Monument of Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, a friend of Stanisław Wyspiański, stands near the exit from Poselska Street. It was made by Edward Krzak in 1980. The monument of Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha stands in front of the Church of St. Franciscans. It was made from August Zamoyskis 1976 design. Monument of Tadeusz Kościuszko sculptured by Leonardo Marconi and Antoni Popiel is featured at Wawel. It was cast in bronze in 1900 and erected around 1920 by the newly established Tadeusz Kościuszko Society to celebrate the return of Polands independence. New sculpture "Eros Bendato" made by Igor Mitoraj is situated on the Main Market Square, near the Town Hall Tower.</p><br>
<h3>Gathering places</h3><br>
<p>Among the best known places to visit in and around the Old Town is Wierzynek restaurant at the Main Market Square. Its name refers to townsman Mikołaj Wierzynek and a feast held by him in the 14th century. The artistic café, Jama Michalika, boasts over a hundred years of literary traditions. Here the Zielony Balonik Cabaret has come into being and the Spirit of Young Poland has arisen. At the Main Market Square there is also the Piwnica pod Baranami cabaret, created by renowned local artists, and a students’ club Pod Jaszczurami. The club is a legend in academic cultural circles. It is a popular place of meetings for the academic environment of Kraków where visitors are always welcome.</p><br>
<p>Moreover, the Square in the city center is a place where many famous people and many important events were and are commemorated. There are plaques dedicated to the oath of Tadeusz Kościuszko in 1794, to Prussian Homage in 1525, and to supporting the renovation of Main Market Square from 1964.</p><br>
<p>Kyes Peak  is a mountain peak in the Henry M. Jackson Wilderness in Washington, United States. Kyes Peak rises to over 7,280 ft. Together with Columbia Peak and Monte Cristo Peak it forms a basin that contains Columbia Glacier and Blanca Lake. It is the highest summit in the Monte Cristo group of peaks.</p><br>
<p>Kyes Peak was once mapped as Goblin Peak, and in earlier times was known by miners and the United States Forest Service as Mount Michigan. The name Kyes comes from a member of the first climbing party, James Ellsworth Kyes. Along with Reginald Bachelder, Kyes climbed the mountain on August 15, 1920. Both were members of the Everett Boy Scouts at the time. It is uncommon for a Washington Cascades mountain to be named after a person who climbed it. The USGS agreed to posthumously rename the mountain in recognition for Kyes&#39; sacrifice commanding a destroyer in the Battle of the Atlantic. An earlier ascent of the peak was probably made by Thomas Gerdine of the USGS in 1897.</p><br>
<p>The Columbia Glacier is a glacier in Prince William Sound on the south coast of the USA state of Alaska, is one of the fastest moving glaciers in the world, and has been retreating since the early 1980s. It was named after Columbia University, one of several glaciers in the area named for elite USA colleges by the Harriman Alaska Expedition in 1899.</p><br>
<p>The Alaska Marine Highway vessel M/V Columbia is named after the Columbia Glacier.</p><br>
<h2>Size</h2><br>
<p>The glacier twists its way through western Alaska&#39;s Chugach Mountains. The bald streak at the bottom of the mountains, called the trimline, shows this glacier has lost 1,300 ft of thickness. It has also retreated 10.5 mi since that measurement was taken.</p><br>
<h2>Retreat</h2><br>
<p>The glaciers speed of retreat at the terminus reached a maximum of nearly 30 m per day in 2001, when it was discharging icebergs at approximately 7 km3 per year; the glacier has subsequently slowed down, resulting in an increase in retreat rate. The terminus has retreated a total of 16 km at an average rate of approximately 0.6 km per year since 1982. The retreat has been accompanied by nearly 500 m of thinning at the present position of the terminus. In the next few decades it is expected to retreat another 15 km, to a point where the bed of the glacier rises above sea level. Columbia Glaciers retreat should be completed around 2020. Tidewater glacier advance and retreat is not directly forced by climate (adjacent tidewater glaciers may be simultaneously advancing and retreating), but rapid retreat appears to be triggered by climate-forced long-term thinning.</p><br>
<p>Klausen Pass  is a high mountain pass in the Swiss Alps connecting Altdorf in the canton of Uri with Linthal in the canton of Glarus. Somewhat unusually, the boundary between the two cantons does not lie at the summit of the pass, but some 8 km down the slope towards Linthal, with the summit being in Uri.</p><br>
<p>The Klausen Pass is crossed by a paved road, which has a length, between Altdorf and Linthal, of 46 km. The road approaches the summit from Altdorf via the Schächen Valley communities of Bürglen, Spiringen and Unterschächen, and descends to Linthal via the Urnerboden. The road is normally closed between October and May, due to the high snowfall on the pass. During the open period, a PostBus Switzerland service crosses the pass several times a day, connecting Fluelen station, on the Gothard railway and Lake Lucerne, with Linthal station, the terminus of the railway line through Glarus.</p><br>
<p>At the top of the pass is a historic chapel, the Bruder-Klaus-Kapelle, whilst 1,500 m to the west side of, and 100 m below, the summit is the Hotel Passhohe.</p><br>
<p>As well as being a popular route for cyclists and motorcyclists, the Klausenpass also forms part of the Alpine Pass Route, a long-distance hiking trail across Switzerland. However the hiking trail approaches the pass from both sides using a route different to that of the road.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Klausen Pass was originally a cattle track, which by 1196 was controlled by a customs office in Bürglen.</p><br>
<p>According to legend, the border between Glarus and Uri was determined in 1315, following prolonged disputes. The two cantons agreed that at first cockcrow, two runners would start from Altdorf and Linthal, respectively, and the border would be where they met. The people of Glarus decided to feed their cock well, so that it might be sympathetic to their cause, while the people of Uri gave theirs nothing to eat at all. The result was that the Glarus cock overslept, while the Uri one, driven by hunger, crowed exceptionally early, and the runner of Uri crossed the entire Urnerboden before the Glarus runner even set out. On the pleading of the Glarus runner, the man of Uri agreed to let him carry him back uphill as far as he could, and the present border between Uri and Glarus is where the Glarus runner fell dead, exhausted from carrying the runner from Uri.</p><br>
<p>In 1590, a hospital for travellers was built at Urnerboden, with the maintenance of the pass shared between the cantons of Uri and Glarus. In 1625 Glarus transferred their section of the route to a private individual. In 1717, a chapel was built at the summit, probably dedicated to St. Nicholas of Myra. In 1870, a road was built from Altdorf to Unterschächen, and in 1893-99 the road was extended across the pass to Linthal. The building of the road required the demolition of the 1717-built chapel, and the current Bruder-Klaus-Kapelle was built in 1938.</p><br>
<h2>Klausen hill climb</h2><br>
<p>An historic hillclimb, almost 14 miles long, known as the Klausenpassrennen. Whitney Straight finished third in the 1934 event.</p><br>
<p>1922 Nieth (Hispano Suiza) 21m 42s</p><br>
<p>1923 Rutzler (Steyr) 20m 24.4s</p><br>
<p>1924 Merz (Mercedes) 18m 48.6s</p><br>
<p>1925 Masetti (Sunbeam) 17m 28.8s</p><br>
<p>1927 Rosenberger (Mercedes) 17m 17s</p><br>
<p>1929 Chiron (Bugatti) 16m 42.4s</p><br>
<p>1930 Chiron (Bugatti) 16m 24.6s</p><br>
<p>1932 Caracciola (Alfa-Romeo) 15m 50s</p><br>
<p>1934 Caracciola (Mercedes) 15m 22.2s (record)</p><br>
<p>In 1993 the Klausenrennen memorial run took place, and is now held (nominally) every four years for vintage cars. The most recent event was held on 27–29 September 2013.</p><br>
<p>Lake Mulwala, a manmade reservoir created through the construction of the Yarrawonga Weir across the Murray River, is located between and in Hume region of Victoria and in the Riverina region of New South Wales, in eastern Australia. The weir was constructed in 1939 to provide water for irrigation of the surrounding district. The weir also serves as a crossing of the Murray between the two towns; in addition to the crossing located via the Mulwala Bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Location and features</h2><br>
<p>The road bridge across the lake was built before the lake was filled, commenced in 1917 and completed in 1924. It replaced an earlier wooden bridge built in 1889-1891. The bridge was started from both ends, each by the respective state government. Unfortunately, they didn&#39;t coordinate their efforts, and the bridge has a dip and a bend in the middle to make the two ends meet.</p><br>
<p>The Yarrawonga weir is the farthest downstream obstruction across the Murray that does not have a navigation lock through it. When full, the lake is 124.9 m above sea level. The weir is 1,992 km upriver from the river mouth.</p><br>
<p>Lake Mulwala is a renowned fishery for the native Murray Cod and is one of the few places where this Australian native freshwater fish is still reasonably common.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, formerly named the Custis-Lee Mansion, is a Greek revival style mansion located in Arlington, Virginia, United States that was once the home of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. It overlooks the Potomac River and the National Mall in Washington, D.C. During the American Civil War, the grounds of the mansion were selected as the site of Arlington National Cemetery, in part to ensure that Lee would never again be able to return to his home. However, the United States has since designated the mansion as a National Memorial to Lee.</p><br>
<p>Although the United States Department of the Army controls Arlington National Cemetery, the National Park Service, a component of the United States Department of the Interior, administers Arlington House.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and early history</h2><br>
<p>The mansion was built on the orders of George Washington Parke Custis, the step-grandson and adopted son of George Washington and only grandson of Martha Custis Washington. Custis became a prominent resident of an area that was then known as Alexandria County, at the time a part of the District of Columbia.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House was built at a high point on a 5,100 ft acre (445 ha) estate that Custis father, John Parke Custis, had purchased in 1778 and named "Mount Washington" ("Jacky" Custis died in 1781 at Yorktown after the British surrender). The younger Custis decided to build his home on the property in 1802 following the death of Martha Washington and three years after the death of George Washington. After acquiring the property, Custis renamed it "Arlington" after the Custis familys homestead on the Eastern Shore of Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Almost immediately, Custis began constructing Arlington House on his land. Hiring George Hadfield as architect, he constructed a mansion exhibiting the first example of Greek Revival architecture in America. Custis intended the mansion to serve as a living memorial to George Washington, and included design elements similar to those of Mount Vernon.</p><br>
<p>Construction began eleven years after LEnfants Plan for the future "Federal City" (later called "Washington City", then Washington D.C.) had designated an area directly across the Potomac River to be the site of the "Presidents House" (later called the "Executive Mansion", now the White House) and the "Congress House" (now the United States Capitol). Custis located the building on a prominent hill overlooking the Georgetown-Alexandria Turnpike (at the approximate location of the present Eisenhower Drive in Arlington National Cemetery), the Potomac River and the growing Washington City on the opposite side of the river. Using slave labor and materials on site, and interrupted by the War of 1812 (and material shortages after the British burned the American capital city), Custis finally completed the mansions exterior in 1818.</p><br>
<p>The north and south wings were completed in 1804. The large center section and the portico, presenting an imposing front 140 ft (43 m) long, were finished 13 years later. The house has two kitchens, a summer and a winter. The most prominent features of the house are the 8 massive columns of the portico, each 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter.</p><br>
<p>Guests at the house included such notable people as Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, who visited in 1824 (see: Visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the United States). At Arlington, Custis experimented with new methods of animal husbandry and other agriculture. The property also included Arlington Spring, a picnic ground on the banks of the Potomac that Custis originally built for private use but later opened to the public, eventually operating it as a commercial enterprise.</p><br>
<p>Custis married Mary Lee Fitzhugh. Their only child to survive to adulthood was Mary Anna Randolph Custis. Robert E. Lee, whose mother was a cousin of Mrs. Custis, frequently visited Arlington and knew Mary Anna as they grew up. Two years after graduating from West Point, Lieutenant Lee married Mary Anna Custis at Arlington on June 30, 1831. For 30 years Arlington House was home to the Lees. They spent much of their married life traveling between United States Army duty stations and Arlington, where six of their seven children were born. They shared this home with Marys parents. After their deaths, Marys parents were buried not far from the house on land that is now part of Arlington National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The Custises extensively developed the Arlington estate. Much of the steep slope to the east of the house became a cultivated English landscape park, while a large flower garden with an arbor was constructed and planted south of the house. To the west of Arlington House, tall grass and low native plants led down a slope into a natural area of close-growing trees the Custises called "the Grove." About 60 ft to the west of the flower garden, "the Grove" contained tall elm and oak trees which formed a canopy. An informal flower garden was planted beneath the trees and maintained by the Custis daughters. It is not clear when "the Grove" began to be developed, but it was under way by at least 1853.</p><br>
<p>Upon George Washington Parke Custis death in 1857, he left the Arlington estate to Mary Custis Lee for her lifetime and thence to the Lees eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee. The estate needed much repair and reorganization, and Robert E. Lee, as executor of Custis will, took a three-year leave of absence from the Army to begin the necessary agricultural and financial improvements. The will also required the executor to free the slaves on the estate within five years of Custis death. Robert E. Lee fulfilled this requirement by manumitting the slaves in December 1862.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>In April 1861, Virginia seceded from the United States. Robert E. Lee resigned his commission in the United States Army on April 20, 1861, and joined the military forces of the Confederate States of America. With Arlington House on high ground overlooking the capital, the government of the United States knew it must occupy the mansion or be left in an untenable military position. Although unwilling to leave Arlington House, Mary Lee believed her estate would soon be occupied by federal soldiers and left to stay with relatives on May 14, after having been warned by her young cousin William Orton Williams, then serving as aide to General Winfield Scott. Union Army troops seized and occupied Arlington without opposition on May 24.</p><br>
<p>In June 1862, the 37th United States Congress enacted legislation that imposed a property tax on all land in "insurrectionary" areas of the United States. The 1863 amendments to the statute required these taxes to be paid in person. But Mary Lee, afflicted with severe rheumatoid arthritis and behind Confederate lines, could not pay the tax in person. The Arlington estate was seized for nonpayment of taxes. It was auctioned off on January 11, 1864, and the USA government won the property for $26,800 ($ in dollars).</p><br>
<p>During the war, Union Army troops cut down many of the trees on the Arlington estate, especially those to the north and east of Arlington House in and near Fort Whipple (north of the house) and Arlington Springs (near the Potomac River). However, a number of large trees remained, particularly those in a forested area (now known as Arlington Woods) west of the house.</p><br>
<p>By early 1864, the military cemeteries of Washington, D.C., and Alexandria, Virginia, were rapidly filling with war dead. Quartermaster General of the United States Army Montgomery C. Meigs proposed using 200 acre of the Arlington estate as a cemetery. United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton approved the establishment of a military cemetery on June 15, 1864, creating Arlington National Cemetery. Meigs believed Lee committed treason in deciding to fight against the Union, and denying Lee use of the mansion after the war was politically advantageous. Meigs decided that a large number of burials should occur close to Arlington House to render it unlivable. Officers were to be buried next to the main flower garden south of the house, and the first burial occurred here on May 17. Meigs ordered that additional burials commence immediately on the grounds of Arlington House in mid-June. When Union officers bivouacked in the mansion complained and had the burials temporarily stopped, Meigs countermanded their orders and had another 44 dead officers buried along the southern and eastern sides of the main flower garden within a month.</p><br>
<p>In September 1866, a memorial and a burial vault containing the remains of 2,111 Union and Confederate soldiers who died at the First Battle of Bull Run, Second Battle of Bull Run, and along the Rappahannock River were buried on the former site of "the Grove" southeast of the mansion beneath the Civil War Unknowns Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Civil War</h2><br>
<p>Robert E. Lee made no attempt to visit or restore his title to Arlington before his death in 1870. Mary Lee died in 1873, having visited the house only one more time, a few months before her death. Too upset at its condition, she refused to enter and left after just a few moments.</p><br>
<p>In April 1874, Robert E. Lee&#39;s eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, filed suit against the United States government in a Virginia circuit court to regain his property.</p><br>
<p>Custis Lee was a Major General in the Civil War and was captured by Union forces at the Battle of Sailor&#39;s Creek VA on April 6, 1865. A jury found in favor of Custis Lee, leading to extensive appeals by both parties. In 1882, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in favor of Lee in United States v. Lee, 106 U. S. 196. The court, by a 5-4 majority, found that the estate had been "illegally confiscated" in 1864 and ordered it returned. But Lee was less interested in obtaining the estate than he was in just compensation for it. After several months of difficult negotiations, Lee and the federal government settled on a sale price of $150,000 ($ in dollars). Congress enacted legislation funding the purchase on March 3, 1883; Lee signed over the title on March 31; and the title transfer was recorded on May 14, 1883.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Virginia General Assembly changed the name of Alexandria County to Arlington County to end ongoing confusion between Alexandria County and the independent city of Alexandria. The name Arlington was chosen to reflect the presence of the Arlington estate.</p><br>
<p>On March 4, 1925, the 68th United States Congress enacted Public Resolution 74, which authorized the restoration of the Lee Mansion in the Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia. The War Department then began to restore Arlington House, and the Department of the Army continues to manage over half of the original plantation&#39;s 1,100 acres, as Arlington National Cemetery. However, for several years after Congress enacted the authorizing legislation, the War Department, which was responsible for managing the house and grounds, largely ignored the legislation. Contradicting the authorizing legislation, the Department, largely at the insistence of Charles Moore, the director of the United States Commission of Fine Arts, furnished and interpreted the Mansion to “the first half of the republic.” This decision was based, in part, on the popularity of the Colonial Revival movement which was still popular in 1925. The Mansion was restored to the period of George Washington Custis, and no furniture manufactured after 1830 was accepted. This approach negated Lee’s role and presence at Arlington.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, the 84th United States Congress enacted Public Law 84-107, a joint resolution that designated the manor as the "Custis-Lee Mansion" as a permanent memorial to Robert E. Lee. The resolution directed the United States Secretary of the Interior to erect on the premises a memorial plaque and to correct governmental records to bring them into compliance with the designation, "thus ensuring that the correct interpretation of its history would be applied". Gradually the house was furnished and interpreted to the period of Robert E. Lee as specified in the original legislation.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service received jurisdiction over the building and some 28 acres of adjacent gardens (distinguished from the cemetery) beginning June 10, 1933.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the 92nd United States Congress enacted Public Law 92-333, an Act that amended Public Law 84-107 to designate the manor as "Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial".</p><br>
<h2>Gray family</h2><br>
<p>One of the lesser known histories about Arlington House, concerns the Gray family, who helped to preserve the legacy of George Washington Park Custis as well as the Lee Family. Selina Norris Gray, the daughter of Leonard and Sally Norris, was a second-generation Arlington slave. In 1831, Selina married Thornton Gray, a fellow Arlington slave, and eventually had eight children who grew up at Arlington. With the onset of the Civil War, the Lee family had to evacuate their home before the Union troops came and occupied the property. Even though Selina was a personal maid to Mrs. Lee, she and her family were left behind; however, before leaving, Mrs. Lee left the house keys to Selina and the responsibility to protect the treasures of the home. Several of these treasures included cherished family heirlooms that had once belonged to Mrs. Lee&#39;s great-grandmother, Martha Custis Washington, and President George Washington.</p><br>
<p>Within months of Union Army General Irvin McDowell occupying the home in 1861, Selina realized that several precious heirlooms were missing due to soldiers looting the property. When she discovered that some of the Washington relics had also disappeared, she promptly provided a list of the missing objects to General McDowell and convinced him that the significance of the collection required his involvement. He first secured the attic and basement areas to prevent further theft, then had the remaining Lee heirlooms shipped to the Patent Office in Washington, D.C for safekeeping. While Selina is credited with saving the heirlooms and treasures of Arlington House, her children later on are credited with helping to restore the home as well as provide accurate details about the layout of the home, personal stories of the Lee family, and help preservationists in the early twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>During major restorative efforts to Arlington House from 1929 to 1930, the Gray family made another important contribution to the history of Arlington County and the nation. Four of Selina and Thornton’s daughters provided crucial details about the house and its furnishings, and their input proved vital to the authenticity of the project. In 2014, the National Park Service acquired a rare photograph of Selina.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<h3>Arlington National Cemetery expansion</h3><br>
<p>In 1995, officials of the United States Department of the Interior and the United States Department of the Army signed an agreement to transfer from Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, to the Army a part of Arlington Woods, which was located in Section 29 of the NPS at Arlington National Cemetery between Arlington House and Fort Myer. The property transfer, which involved 12 acre of NPS land, was intended to enable the Cemetery to increase its space for burials.</p><br>
<p>Environmentalists expressed concerns that the agreement would result in the partial destruction of the 24 acre remnant of an historically important stand of native trees. Nevertheless, Congress enacted legislation in September 1996 authorizing the transfer.</p><br>
<p>On June 5, 2013, after reviewing 100 public comments that it had received on a draft environmental assessment (EA) for the Cemetery expansion project, the United States Army Corps of Engineers released a final EA and a signed Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) for the project. The final EA stated that, of the 905 trees to be removed, 771 trees were healthy native trees that had diameters between 6 and 41 inches. The project would remove approximately 211 trees from a less than 2.63 acre area containing a portion of a 145-year-old forest that stood within the property boundaries of a historic district that a National Register of Historic Places nomination form for Arlington House had described in 1966. About 491 trees would be removed from an area of trees that was approximately 105 years old. At a public hearing on July 11, 2013, the National Capital Planning Commission approved the site and building plans for the project.</p><br>
<h3>Studies, damages and restorations</h3><br>
<p>From 2003 to 2007, the National Park Service conducted an archeological excavation of two outbuildings that once held Arlington House&#39;s slave quarters. In 2009, the Park Service published reports that described the history of the slave quarters and the findings of the excavations, as well as proposals for the restoration of the quarters.</p><br>
<p>From 2007 through 2013, Arlington House underwent its first renovation since 1925. During that period, the National Park Services placed the House&#39;s furnishings on display at the Friendship Hill National Historic Site near Point Marion, Pennsylvania. The Park Service held a rededication ceremony after it had completed the renovation and returned the furnishings to the House.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House suffered significant damage in the 2011 Virginia earthquake, requiring the closure of the back halls and upper floor pending an architectural assessment. On July 17, 2014, philanthropist David Rubenstein donated $12.5 million to the National Park Foundation (the arm of the National Park Service which raises funds through private contributions) to rehabilitate Arlington House, its outbuildings, and grounds. The 30-month project is intended to restore the mansion, buildings, and grounds to the way they looked in 1860. The project will repair the earthquake-damaged foundation, and add new interior lighting and a modern climate-control system. National Park Service officials said they are likely to close Arlington House and the slave quarters for several months in 2016, during which most of the work will be done.</p><br>
<h2>Replicas</h2><br>
<p>In 1919, a replica was built for the short-lived Lanier University in Atlanta, designed by architect A. Ten Eyck Brown. It is still standing at 1140 University Drive NE, and houses the Ben H. Zimmerman Religious School and the Canterbury School. Arlington Hall, a two-thirds scale replica of Arlington House, was built in 1939 in Robert E. Lee Park in Dallas, Texas.</p><br>
<p>The façade of the Old Administration Building in Arlington National Cemetery resembles that of Arlington House. The building is 500 ft west of Arlington House.</p><br>
<p>Waiau River is the largest river in the Southland Region of New Zealand. It is the outflow of Lake Te Anau, flowing from it into Lake Manapouri 10 km to the south, and from there flows south for 70 km before reaching the Foveaux Strait 8 km south of Tuatapere. It also takes water from Lake Monowai.</p><br>
<p>The Upper Waiau River that flows between Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau doubled as the fictional River Anduin at the end of the first film of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, for the scenes where the Uruk-hai chase the Fellowship along the river banks. A proposal that a 2 km stretch of river below the area known as Balloon Loop be named the Anduin Reach to honour New Zealand film maker Peter Jackson for his use of the area as the River Anduin was rejected by the New Zealand Geographic Board in April 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>There are diverse species in the forested catchment basin of the Waiau River. Vegetative understory within most of the Fiordland National Park includes numerous fern species including the Crown Fern, Blechnum discolor.</p><br>
<p>Several species of endangered birds live around the shores of Lake Te Anau, and the upper Waiau River, notably the Takahē (Notornis hochstetteri). An area between the Middle and South Fiords called the Murchison Mountains is a sanctuary set aside for these birds. The western shore of Lake Te Anau also holds the Te Ana-au Caves, from which Lake Te Anau derives its name.</p><br>
<h2>Cycle trail project</h2><br>
<p>In March 2007, the Fiordland Trails Trust was established to build a cycle trail along the banks of the Upper Waiau, linking the Township of Te Anau to the Township of Manapouri.</p><br>
<p>A survey of the “Anduin Reach” was conducted in 2007, and landmark names were proposed based on the Lord of the Rings film trilogy. It was decided that Anduin Reach should be the place name to help promote the future prospects of the Cycle Trail Project.</p><br>
<p>The Jason Russell House is a historic house in Arlington, Massachusetts, the site of the bloodiest fighting on the first day of the American Revolutionary War, April 19, 1775 . The house was purchased in 1923 by the Arlington Historical Society which restored it in 1926, and now operates it as a museum from mid-April through the end of September, together with the adjoining Smith Museum, built in 1981 to house changing exhibitions of life in Arlington.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>About 1740, Jason Russell (1716–1775), a relatively prosperous farmer, constructed the house on pasture land he inherited in 1738. In order to have the front facing south, in the New England tradition, he placed the north side angled toward the Concord Road (now Massachusetts Avenue). Perhaps five or ten years later, he added two more rooms to form a typical New England farmhouse with five windows across the front, a door in the center and a large chimney in the middle of a pitched roof. There is some evidence that the hall (or kitchen) and its chamber above, as well as the garret, were original to Grandfather Jasons original structure of 1680. The hall and parlor of the house, with their chambers and the garret, are essentially unchanged today, although in 1814 a porch (or vestibule) was added to the front door, and further extensions were subsequently added to the sides around 1863. Inside the central part are four rooms: to the left of the entry are the kitchen and childrens chamber (above), and to the right, the parlor and parlor chamber. The kitchen ceiling retains its original whitewash and sponge painting decorative surface treatment. The outside walls may have been plastered originally, but in 1924, when the house was restored, wood sheathing was installed.</p><br>
<p>Robert Nylander proposed in 1964 that the house was built in two stages; however, research conducted in 2012 by the Dendrochronology Laboratory at Oxford University confirms that the home was erected during a single campaign between 1740 and 1750. The Oxford study also revealed that many of the timbers used in the house were made from lumber cut in 1684–85 or earlier and were probably salvaged from an older building on the property.</p><br>
<p>The battle at the Jason Russell House occurred late in the day, around five PM. Light infantry and grenadiers from the detachment which engaged earlier at Lexington and Concord marched toward Boston along the Concord Road. They had been met earlier in Lexington by a brigade led by Lord Percy that brought up the rear and provided strong flanking parties. The Americans kept up incessant fire from behind stone walls and other places of shelter as the British retreated.</p><br>
<p>These skirmishes erupted into a full-fledged battle at the Jason Russell House. A company of minute-men under the command of Gen. Gideon Foster, along with several other companies of minute-men and militia, had left Danvers earlier. All reached Menotomy before the British. Many of them went into a walled enclosure near the Jason Russell House where they planned to intercept the retreating soldiers. Despite being warned to watch for a flank-guard, by Israel Hutchinson, one of their company captains, they focused on the main body of British as it passed. When the party flanking the Concord Road to the south surprised them, the Americans fled to the Jason Russell House.</p><br>
<p>Jason Russell was 59 and lame. At noon, he had started with his wife and children to seek safety at the George Prentiss house higher up on the hill, but after proceeding part way he sent them on alone and returned to his house. A nearby neighbor, Ammi Cutter, advised him to seek safety, but Russell refused, reportedly saying "An Englishman&#39;s house is his castle." Cutter himself was nearly killed by fire from an advance flanking party. Stumbling and falling between mill logs as bullets hit their bark around him, he was thought dead and the British passed him by.</p><br>
<p>Jason Russell and eleven others were buried in one grave, without coffins. A plain obelisk of New Hampshire granite now stands above the grave. It is reported that Capt. William Adams, who lived nearby, brought a sheet from his house saying he could not bear to have his neighbor buried before his eyes without a winding sheet.</p><br>
<p>The inscription on the monument reads:</p><br>
<p>Erected by the Inhabitants of West Cambridge, A.D. 1848, over the common grave of Jason Russell, Jason Winship, Jabez Wyman and nine others, who were slain in this town by the British Troops on their retreat from the Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19th, 1775. Being among the first to lay down their lives in the struggle for American Independence.</p><br>
<p>The nine others, forgotten at the time the monument was erected, have since been identified as: John Bacon, Amos Mills, Jonathan Parker, Nathan Chamberlain of Needham, William Flint, Thomas Hadley, Abednego Ramsdell of Lynn, Elias Haven of Dedham and Benjamin Pierce of Salem.</p><br>
<p>Jason Russell&#39;s estate was settled in 1776. His house and 117 acres of land were divided between Noah, his only son left at home, and his widow, Elizabeth. She received the 17 acres the house was standing on together with half the house, "Libberty to ues the oven when wanted" and additional privileges of use, including space in the barn. Noah received the other half of the house, half the barn and some lands. Other children got other parts of the estate. Elizabeth Russell lived in her northerly rooms until the eleventh of August 1786 when she died aged 65.</p><br>
<p>Unaweep Canyon is a geologically unique canyon that cuts across the Uncompahgre Plateau, Mesa County, in western Colorado. It is unique because two creeks, East Creek and West Creek, flow out of opposite ends of the canyon, separated by the almost imperceptible Unaweep Divide. State Highway 141 runs inside Unaweep Canyon between Whitewater and Gateway, one segment of the Colorado-designated Unaweep/Tabeguache Scenic Byway. The Unaweep Divide, elevation 7,008 ft, is near mile marker 135 on SH 141.</p><br>
<h2>Hypotheses of origin</h2><br>
<p>There are multiple explanations for the origin of Unaweep Canyon. In the late 19th century, members of the Hayden Survey recognized the oddity of a canyon with two outlets, and suggested it was carved by the ancestral Colorado or Gunnison river. Many others have also suggested it was carved by either the Gunnison or Colorado Rivers, but evidence for gravel deposits characteristic of these rivers was elusive, and the existence of the divide remains difficult to explain. Several have suggested that Plio-Pleistocene uplift caused diversion of the (Colorado and/or Gunnison) river(s) and abandonment of the canyon. But rates of river incision typically exceed those of tectonic uplift, making this unlikely. The many apparent glacial-like features of the canyon&#39;s inner gorge have led some to suggest a Pleistocene glacial origin for the canyon, but the low elevation of the canyon, and lack of Pleistocene glacial deposits, make this problematic.</p><br>
<h3>Recent finds</h3><br>
<p>More recently, documentation of gravels characteristic of the Gunnison River and located at the western mouth of Unaweep Canyon provide evidence for occupation of the canyon by an ancestral Gunnison River Hence, the ancestral Gunnison River may have carved the canyon. However, another hypothesis holds that the ancestral Gunnison River did not carve the canyon, but exhumed a pre-existing (paleo) canyon. This hypothesis of an ancient age for the inner gorge of Unaweep Canyon comes from dating of sediments recovered in a core through the canyon fill. This core proved the existence of a thick (&gt;300 m) sediment fill in the canyon, an idea first proposed in the 1970s on the basis of a geophysical study. Related to the proposed ancient age for the canyon is the hypothesis that the canyon was glaciated during the Late Paleozoic, roughly 300 million years ago. The hypotheses of a Paleozoic age and glacial origin for the canyon, remain debated, like many other hypotheses for the origin of this scenic canyon.</p><br>
<p>La Meije is a mountain in the Massif des Écrins range, located at the border of the Hautes-Alpes and Isère départements. It overlooks the nearby village of La Grave, a mountaineering centre and ski resort, well known for its off-piste and extreme skiing possibilities, and also dominates the view west of the Col du Lautaret. It is the second highest mountain of the Écrins after Barre des Écrins</p><br>
<h2>Summits</h2><br>
<p>Main ridge from west to east</p><br>
<p>Le Grand Doigt, 3.764 m</p><br>
<p>Pic du Glacier Carré, 3.862 m</p><br>
<p>Grand Pic de la Meije or Pic Occidentale, 3.983 m</p><br>
<p>Pic Central or Doigt de Dieu, 3.970 m</p><br>
<p>Pic Oriental, 3.891 m</p><br>
<p>Neighboring peaks are Le Râteau (3,809 m) to the west, past the Brèche de la Meije (3,357 m) and :fr:Le Pavé (3,823 m) and Pic Gaspard (3,881 m) to the southeast, past the Brèche Maximin Gaspard (3,723 m)</p><br>
<h2>Historic ascents</h2><br>
<p>The central and second highest summit has five teeth, the highest of which is known as Doigt de Dieu (English: Finger of God). This summit was reached from the northeast on June 28, 1870, by Christian and Ulrich Almer and Christian Gertsch, guiding Meta Brevoort and W.A.B. Coolidge. The ridge from the central to the main, Western peak, which is 13 meters higher, was considered an insurmountable obstacle for the next 15 years.</p><br>
<p>The Western true summit of La Meije, the Grand Pic, is notorious in that there is no "easy" path to its top and it was the last major peak in the Alps to be summited. The first ascent was eventually made from the southwest on 16 August 1877 by father and son Pierre Gaspard and their client Emmanuel Boileau de Castelnau. Their approach, over the south buttress Arête du Promontoire and further over the Glacier Carré and the southwest face of the Grand Pic is now the normal route.</p><br>
<p>On July 26, 1885, Ludwig Purtscheller and the brothers Otto and Emil Zsigmondy made the first traverse from the central to the main summit, via the "insurmountable" gap that is now known as the Brèche Zsigmondy, in what is still considered a classic route though thoroughly modified by a May 1964 rockfall. The traverse in the opposite direction was accomplished 6 years later by Ulrich Almer, Fritz Boss and J.H. Gibson.</p><br>
<p>The south face is widely considered to be the most difficult of La Meije. Within two weeks after their successful traverse, the Zsigmondy brothers, together with Karl Schulz, tried to reach the Brèche Zsigmondy over the south face, but Emil died in the attempt. The first successful attempt was not until twenty-seven years later, in 1912 by Angelo Dibona, Luigi Rizzi, and the brothers Guido and Max Mayer, while a direct route over the south face to the Grand Pic was only climbed in 1935 and that to the Central Pic in 1951.</p><br>
<h2>Approaches</h2><br>
<p>For mountaineering, La Meije can be approached from two mountain refuges:</p><br>
<p>The refuge du Promontoire at 3,082 metres, is situated at the bottom of the steep south buttress of the peak, and allows access to routes on the south face of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The refuge de l&#39;Aigle at 3,450 metres, is situated at the top of the Tabuchet glacier, and allows access to the north face.</p><br>
<p>The Ślęża  is a mountain in the Sudeten Foreland  in Lower Silesia, 30 km from Wrocław, southern Poland. This natural reserve built mostly of granite is 718 m high and covered with forests.</p><br>
<p>The top of the mountain has a PTTK tourist Mountain hut, a TV and radio mast, church Mary, poorly visible ruins of the castle and observation tower. The mountain and its surrounding region form the protected area called Ślęża Landscape Park.</p><br>
<h2>Sacred mountain</h2><br>
<p>During the Neolithic Period and at least as far back as the 7th century BC Mount Ślęża (Zobten) was a holy place of the tribes of the Lusatian culture. It was then settled by Slavs.</p><br>
<p>The Silingi, a subpopulation of the East Germanic tribe known as the Vandals are the earliest inhabitants of Silesia known by their name, however the greater part of them moved westwards after the 5th century A.D. and the remainder were slowly replaced in the 6th century by Slavic tribes who assimilated the few remaining East Germanic inhabitants.T. Hunt Tooley "National Identity and Weimar Germany: Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border", 1997</p><br>
<p>University of Nebraska Press, p.6 () The Silingi were part of the Przeworsk culture.</p><br>
<p>The name of the territory Silesia either derives from the Ślęza River, or from Mount Ślęża, which themselves derive their name from either, according to Germanist authors the Silingi people. or, according to Slavisist authors, the Ślężanie people.</p><br>
<p>The Slavic Ślężanie tribe settled in the area around the 6th Century AD. In the 10th Century, Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty incorporated Silesia into the Polish state. The etymology of the mountain is highly disputed between a Slavic, Germanic, or other Indo-European origin. The name has been recorded in several forms. As monte Silencii, in 1108, or as monte Slez in 1245.</p><br>
<p>Christianity came first via the Byzantine Church Slavonic missionaries saints Cyril and Methodius and by the diocese of Regensburg, then in the 10th century Bohemia received a bishopric, Prague, which was itself subject to the archbishopric of Mainz.</p><br>
<p>Mount Ślęża was an ancient holy place for local tribes dedicated to a sun deity, and remained a holy place during Christian times as well. In the first half of the 12th century, the owner of the place was the Polish dukes&#39; governor, Piotr Włostowic, who founded there an Augustinian convent which was subsequently moved to Wrocław in 1153.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The Silesians may have been named after the Silingi, as the Silingi were inhabiting this region; Another explanation says that the word is perhaps derived from a Silesian word meaning "wet swampy place", the corresponding verb is "Ślęgnąć" meaning "to become wet".</p><br>
<h2>Ślęża in art and culture</h2><br>
<p>Mount Ślęża has been portrayed in the famous but atypical manner of Polish independent film (in Poland called Polskie Kino Niezależne) Edi800 in the movie Ślęża Manekin Project III.</p><br>
<h2>Transmitter</h2><br>
<p>On Ślęża there is a facility for FM- and TV-transmission, which uses a 136 metre tall free-standing (with additional guying) lattice tower. The current tower which was built in 1972 replaced a 98 metre tall tower built in 1957, which was partially guyed.</p><br>
<p>Fort Belvedere  is a Grade II* listed country house on Shrubs Hill in Windsor Great Park, in Surrey, England. The fort was predominantly constructed by Jeffry Wyatville in a Gothic Revival style in the 1820s.</p><br>
<p>The fort was occupied by numerous members of the British royal family and associated personages from 1750 to 1976. From 1929 Fort Belvedere was the home of Edward, Prince of Wales, who greatly renovated the house and grounds, and was the site of Edward&#39;s abdication as King in 1936. The property remains part of the Crown Estate, and is home to private tenants. It is not open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Fort Belvedere estate is situated in the extreme south end of Windsor Great Park in the parish of Egham, in the Borough of Runnymede in Surrey. Though in Surrey, the closest town to the fort is Sunningdale in Berkshire. The fort is situated on Shrubs Hill and overlooks Virginia Water. The fort is 22 miles from London, and Edward, Prince of Wales, would boast of being able to see Londons St Paul&#39;s Cathedral "through a spy-glass" from the fort in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>The forts acquired name of Belvedere reflects its status as a vantage point and as an eye-catcher&#39; for the park.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>Fort Belvedere was built 1750–1755, by Henry Flitcroft, for Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland (1721–1765), younger son of King George II and Queen Caroline, and was featured in an engravings in 1753 and 1754, where it was described as the "New building on Shrubb&#39;s Hill".</p><br>
<p>It was, at first, merely a folly. It was used as a summer-house, and seven counties could be seen, as now, from the top of the flagstaff tower. The triangular turreted structure was set amidst a dense plantation of trees and overlooked Virginia Water, a man-made body of water constructed by Thomas and Paul Sandby at the behest of the Duke.</p><br>
<p>Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, who was responsible, under King George IV, for the rebuilding of Windsor Castle, enlarged the house in 1828 at a proposed cost of £4000. Additions included an octagonal dining room in the north-east side, in which the King regularly had dinner. A three storey annex was added for the accommodation of the Bombardier, with a new wall linking a heightened turret to which a large flagpole was added. The addition of further Gothic details enhanced the interior and exterior of the fort in 1829. The fort is built of brick with an applied wash that imitated the appearance of stone.</p><br>
<p>Queen Victoria used Fort Belvedere as a tea house, and the fort was opened to the public in the 1860s.</p><br>
<p>By 1910 the fort was occupied as a grace and favour residence by Sir Malcolm Murray, the Comptroller to the Duke of Connaught. The Duke was the owner of nearby Bagshot Park. The fort was extended with a new service wing and entrance porch in 1911–12, which was subsequently demolished. The dining and drawing rooms were also extended and new entrance lodges were built. After the departure of Murray, the fort was described as suffering from "dust inches deep, splintered doors and sagging floors" in 1929.</p><br>
<p>The ruins in the grounds can be seen from the shore of Virginia Water and are part of an ancient temple brought from Leptis Magna near Tripoli. The ruins are located between the south shore and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the A30 London Road and Wentworth Drive.</p><br>
<h2>King Edward VIII</h2><br>
<p>In 1929, the building became vacant, and was given to Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, by his father, King George V. The king had originally expressed surprise at Edwards request asking him "What could you possibly want that queer old place for? Those damn weekends I suppose", but then smiled and gave his permission. Edwards previous residence had been York House, part of St. James&#39;s Palace in London, which he had thought "more an office than a home." He would later write that he "created a home at the fort just as my father and grandfather had created one at Sandringham... here I spent some of the happiest days of my life."</p><br>
<p>During Edward&#39;s occupancy, extensive renovation of the interior and grounds was carried out.</p><br>
<p>He built a swimming pool at the fort between 1931 and 1932, that replaced an old lily pond, and added a tennis court and developed stables in the grounds of the fort. Edward added modern conveniences at the fort, many of which were still rare in British homes, including bathrooms adjacent to nearly every room, a steam-room, showers, built-in cupboards and central heating. The prince initially renovated the house with the assistance of his then mistress Freda Dudley Ward. By 1959 only one room, the drawing room, had survived from Edwards renovations. The drawing rooms painted walls were designed to resemble the pinewood panelling of a Scottish shooting lodge. The total cost of the redecoration including plumbing and repairs came to £21,000 (£ as of ).</p><br>
<p>The relationship between Edward and Wallis Simpson blossomed at Fort Belvedere; the couple spent their first weekend at the fort at the end of January 1932, and by early 1935 two rooms had been combined at the fort for her use. Notable interior decorators to work on the fort under Edward included Sybil Colefax, Lady Mendl, Maison Jansen, and Herman Schrijver. Edward and Wallis entertained most weekends at the house; guests present included courtiers and diplomats, American men of affairs and English Society, garnished with a sprinkling of statesmen, soldiers and sailors. Giles Gilbert Scott added a guest wing to the fort after Edwards accession as king in 1936. In 1936 Wallis moved permanently to the fort after receiving threatening anonymous letters, and left Fort Belvedere for the final time on 3 December 1936, a week before Edwards abdication.</p><br>
<p>Cabinet Office files released in 2013 revealed that during December 1936, the Home Secretary, Sir John Simon, had ordered the General Post Office to intercept Edwards telephone communications between the fort and the European continent. Government officials were caused further alarm by Edwards habit of leaving his official "red boxes" unguarded around the fort.</p><br>
<p>Following opposition to the potential of Edwards marriage to Wallis Simpson from the British government and autonomous Dominions of the British Commonwealth, the fort became the final setting of Edwards abdication as king. He held several meetings with Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin at the fort during the crisis, and on 10 December 1936 signed his written abdication notices at the fort, witnessed by his three younger brothers: Prince Albert, Duke of York (who succeeded Edward as George VI); Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince George, Duke of Kent. The following day, it was given legislative form by special Act of Parliament: His Majestys Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. Following his abdication at the fort, Edward described himself as feeling "like a swimmer surfacing from a great depth... I left the room and stepped outside, inhaling the fresh morning air." He retained the visitors book from the fort, and it would grace all their subsequent homes.</p><br>
<p>Edward continued to pay for the gardeners, insurance and upkeep of the fort in the initial years following his abdication, because it was his wish that he would return there. His possessions from the fort were transferred to the Château de la Croë in the south of France (where he had named the sitting room "The Belvedere") in the spring of 1938, but many were damaged in transit. Edward was informed in March 1940 that the fort was no longer in his possession as his warrant to occupy the grace and favour residence had expired on the termination of his reign and was not to be renewed by the present sovereign, his brother, now George VI. Edward was greatly upset by this, writing in 1940 that "It is crystal clear that this proposed reserving of the Fort by the use of Crown Lands is nothing more than a piece of bluff, and the first excuse that the king has been able to find to deprive me of my right to occupy the place should I ever desire to do so..." Edward believed that the incident was an example of his brothers failure to keep his word to me&#39; after the fort had apparently been reserved for him if he should reside once more in England.</p><br>
<p>In 1977 the fort was used extensively for the filming of Edward & Mrs. Simpson, an ITV serialisation of Edward and Wallis&#39;s relationship.</p><br>
<h2>Post abdication</h2><br>
<p>Fort Belvedere was largely unoccupied during the 20 years following Edward&#39;s abdication. The fort was used by the Office of the Commissioners of Crown Lands, who had been evacuated from their central London offices during World War II. After the war, the house remained empty.</p><br>
<h3>Gerald and Angela Lascelles</h3><br>
<p>In 1953 it was announced that the fort was to be available on a long lease, and a 99-year lease on the fort was bought by The Honourable Gerald Lascelles in 1955. Lascelles was the son of Henry Lascelles, 6th Earl of Harewood and Mary, Princess Royal, the only daughter of King George V and Mary of Teck. Lascelles was a first cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. He lived at the fort with his wife, Angela, and their son, Henry. Lascelles described the house as falling to pieces at the beginning of his occupancy, and refurbished the fort, removing most traces of Edwards renovations in the process, except for the swimming pool and the battlements walk. A mural added by Peters in the drawing-room, and painted by Oliver Carson, depicted Peters in an incidental role, portrayed in 18th-century clothes chasing butterflies. The Lascelles later claimed the credit for Peterss designs and his career suffered irreparable damage as a result.</p><br>
<h3>1976 sale</h3><br>
<p>The financial pressure following his divorce caused Gerald Lascelles to put his 78-year remainder of the lease up for sale through estate agents Savills in 1976. Offers for the lease above £200,000 were invited. Three cottages were also included in the lease with the swimming pool and tennis court. The lease was eventually acquired by a son of the Emir of Dubai in 1976.</p><br>
<h3>Galen and Hilary Weston</h3><br>
<p>Since the early 1980s the lease on Fort Belvedere has been held by the Canadian billionaire retail magnate Galen Weston, and his wife Hilary. The Westons have carried out extensive works on the fort, constructing a polo stud and doubling the size of the lake in the grounds.</p><br>
<p>The Westons have a close relationship with the British Royal family; they were often guests of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother at the nearby Royal Lodge, and have hosted Queen Elizabeth II at the fort. Prince Charles plays polo with Galen Weston and stables his polo ponies at Fort Belvedere, The Westons have held notable parties at Fort Belvedere; Hilary Weston&#39;s 60th birthday party at the fort was attended by Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, Queen Noor of Jordan and Princess Caroline of Monaco, and a June 2014 ball at the fort was enthusiastically covered in The Spectator magazine by Taki.</p><br>
<p>The Crown Estate Commissioners remain the owners of the freehold, as the property is still part of the Great Park.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>The grounds of Fort Belvedere are about a hundred acres in size and include forests and a lake. The gardens of Fort Belvedere, Virginia Water and the nearby Clockcase are Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.</p><br>
<p>Edward said of the fort that "By the time I came upon it, it had become a pseudo-Gothic hodge-podge. A profusion of yew trees kept one side of the house in perpetual shadow, staining the wall with green acidulous mould. But the half-buried beauty of the place leaped to my eye."</p><br>
<p>Edwards subsequent passion for landscaping and horticulture briefly eclipsed golf and hunting in his affections, Edward planted roses and irises along the walls of the battlement. Prime Minister Baldwin complimented Edward on the beauty of the garden; commenting on the "silvery radiance of the birch trees and the delicacy of the autumn tints" in late 1936. Edward also mowed hay on the forts estate in the summer months and built a rock garden with cascading water pumped from Virginia Water.</p><br>
<p>The Westons have carried out substantial landscaping at the fort, and recruited Rosemary Verey to help with the design of the gardens at Fort Belvedere in the early 1980s. Verey&#39;s designs for the rose garden and the 120 ft long borders along the battlement remain, and have been reworked and maintained by garden designer Tom Stuart-Smith.</p><br>
<h2>Cannon</h2><br>
<p>Thirty-one brass cannon were moved to the north-facing crenellated terrace of the fort from nearby Cumberland Lodge in the early 19th century. The cannon were made by Andrew Schalch at the Royal Brass Foundry in Woolwich in 1729–1749. The cannon were fired for King George IVs birthdays and other royal birthdays until 1907, with the cannonfire being answered by a miniature frigate situated on Virginia Water in the early years of their operation. The last Bombardier situated at the fort was Master Gunner Turner of the Royal Artillery. The Bombardier was entrusted with the care of the guns and lived in Bombardiers Cottage, connected to the main house by an archway. The cannon would have been melted down as part of the war effort in 1943 had it not been for the intervention of the head of the Tower Armoury, J. G. Mann. Four guns were removed from the terrace in 1930 and placed in two pairs at the entrances to the fort.</p><br>
<h2>Derivative buildings</h2><br>
<p>Shrubs Hill Tower inspired the building of similar triangular tower follies on various large estates, including:</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Tower (1788), Haldon House, near Exeter, Devon, built by Sir Robert Palk, 1st Baronet (1717–1798), in memory of his friend and patron General Stringer Lawrence (1697–1775).</p><br>
<p>Powderham Belvedere (1773), Powderham Castle, near Exeter, Devon, built by the Earl of Devon.</p><br>
<p>The Hochstaufen is located in the north of Bad Reichenhall  and is the easternmost mountain of the Chiemgau Alps. The mountain belongs to the Staufen massif and is a popular destination for mountaineering.</p><br>
<p>In the 17th century there were some mines at the Hochstaufen, the best known gallery was the Doktor-Oswald-Gallery, located only 60 m underneath the summit.</p><br>
<p>At an altitude of 1,750 m is the Reichenhaller Haus, an alpine hut of the Deutscher Alpenverein (Section Bad Reichenhall).</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>Bad Reichenhall (Padinger Alm) – Barthlmahd – Reichenhaller Haus – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Bad Reichenhall (Padinger Alm) – Buchmahd – "Steinerne Jaeger" – Reichenhaller Haus – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Piding (Urwies or Mauthausen) – Mairalm – "Steinerne Jaeger" – Reichenhaller Haus – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Piding (Urwies or Mauthausen) – Mairalm – Pidinger Klettersteig (fixed rope route) – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Piding or Aufham-Anger – Steiner Alm – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Passage from Zwiesel – Zennokopf – Mittelstaufen – Reichenhaller Haus – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Passage from Zwieselalm – Barthlmahd – Reichenhaller Haus – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>Passage from Fuderheuberg – "Steinerne Jaeger" – Reichenhaller Haus – Hochstaufen</p><br>
<p>The fixed rope route Pidinger Klettersteig was created in 2003 and is one of the most challenging fixed rope routes in Germany.</p><br>
<h2>Miscellaneous</h2><br>
<p>After heavy rainfalls earthquakes occur at the Hochstaufen, so there are several seismometers of the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich around the mountain.</p><br>
<p>In September 1993 the innkeeper couple of the Reichenhaller Haus was murdered in a brutal robbery.</p><br>
<p>The St. Elmo Historic District, or St. Elmo for short, is a neighborhood in the city of Chattanooga, Tennessee. It is situated in the southernmost part of Hamilton County within the valley of Lookout Mountain below the part of the Tennessee River known as Moccasin Bend. St Elmo is at the crossroads of two ancient Indian trails, and was first occupied by Native American hunters and gatherers in the Woodland period, then agricultural Mississippians, including Euchee and Muscogee, and for a brief period between 1776 and 1786, the Cherokees in a community called Lookout Town. St. Elmo became part of the city of Chattanooga when it was annexed in September 1929.</p><br>
<p>Hundreds of properties in the neighborhood were listed on the National Register in 1982, and in 1996 St. Elmo was designated a Local Historic District. Many of the buildings from the late 19th and early 20th century have been preserved. A St. Elmo resident is an Elmoian.</p><br>
<h2>Settlement</h2><br>
<p>In 1776, Cherokee chief Dragging Canoe and several hundred Cherokee warriors migrated to Chickamauga Creek after objecting to a treaty between other Cherokees and American land speculators and promising active resistance. They became known as the Chickamaugas, and eventually moved farther down the Tennessee River below The Suck; to the other end of the Tennessee River Gorge. There they built the "Five Lower Towns" at Running Water (now Whiteside) and further downriver. Between 1777 and 1782, the so-called "Chickamaugas" also had a town called Tsatanugi (or Chatanuga, based on the Muscogee word cvto - rock), near here along Chattanooga Creek.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Ross, a young Scottish immigrant, came to the area in 1785 and worked at a trading post with John McDonald, the areas first businessman. Ross married McDonalds daughter and the two built a house in what was to become St. Elmo after the Wars. Their youngest son, John Ross, was the leader of the Cherokee Nation who would call for passive resistance to the federal Indian removal policies that led to the Trail of Tears in 1838.</p><br>
<h2>Early St. Elmo and Chattanooga</h2><br>
<p>Up until 1838, the Tennessee River was the dividing line between Hamilton County and the Cherokee country. That year, the community of Ross&#39;s Landing was surveyed, and in 1839 the village of Chattanooga was established north of the mouth of Chattanooga Creek. In 1840, the state of Tennessee began to sell the property formerly owned by the Cherokees at the rate of $7.50 an acre. Much of the Tennessee side of Lookout Mountain and the surrounding land was purchased by the Whiteside and Cravens families.</p><br>
<p>The area at the foot of Lookout Mountain was acquired shortly after the Civil War by Colonel Abraham Malone Johnson and his wife, Thankful Whiteside Johnson. In 1885, Colonel Johnson divided his farm into residential and commercial lots. The name "St. Elmo" was taken from the title of a novel written by Augusta J. Evans Wilson, who had spent several summers on Lookout Mountain and found the view similar to that of St. Elmo Castle in Naples, Italy. Her book, St. Elmo, was published in 1866, and ultimately rivaled Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin in impact and influence. St. Elmo became one of the top three best-selling novels of the nineteenth century.</p><br>
<h2>Yellow Fever and Urban Development</h2><br>
<p>A yellow fever epidemic in Chattanooga caused an exodus in 1878. Almost 12,000 people fled the city, many going to Lookout Mountain. At the time, the mountain was accessible on the north side only by a four-hour trip up the old Whiteside Turnpike, which was built in the 1850s and cost a toll of two dollars. Complaints about the toll led to the 1879 construction of the St. Elmo Turnpike, which had an easier grade and a lower toll (the St. Elmo turnpike was paved and renamed the Adolph S. Ochs Highway in the late 1920s).</p><br>
<p>Until the 1880s, the area at the foot of Lookout Mountain remained primarily a wooded area. The real boom in the growth of St. Elmo as a residential community coincided with the planning and development of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, which was dedicated in 1890. At the time, St. Elmo saw development resulting from both a general real estate and construction boom in the South and the 1893 expansion of an electric trolley from Chattanooga to St. Elmo.</p><br>
<h2>Connecting St. Elmo to Chattanooga</h2><br>
<p>The trolley was not the only transportation development to influence the history of St. Elmo. In 1887, the narrow-gauge Incline #1 ran cars from St. Elmo up to the bluffs of Lookout Mountain. Soon after, a broad-gauge line was opened for carrying regular railroad cars to the mountaintop. And finally, in 1895, Incline #2 (now known as the Incline Railway) started taking passengers up the steepest part of the mountain. Its views were popular with both residents and tourists, and by 1900 the success of this railway closed down all of its competitors. Today, "Americas Most Amazing Mile" still enjoys the distinction of being the worlds steepest passenger railway.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, St. Elmo was incorporated and a town commission was formed for the purpose of securing funding for a school. A bond was issued, and work on the building was completed at the end of 1906. The small brick building replaced St. Elmo&#39;s first school, established in 1891.</p><br>
<p>It wasn&#39;t until 1926 that a direct route was established between St. Elmo and Chattanooga. The city wanted to provide a thoroughfare to St. Elmo and Lookout Mountain, but Broad Street ended abruptly at Ninth Street (now Martin Luther King Jr Boulevard), terminating at a railroad station owned by the State of Georgia. Negotiations to open a passageway for a road through the south side had failed over the years. Chattanooga Commissioner Ed Bass took matters into his own hands on the night of May 6, when he and a crew of city workers bulldozed enough of the buildings to establish a right-of-way for cars. The city got its road, and eventually Georgia sold the rest of its holdings in the area.</p><br>
<p>Dix Mountain is the sixth highest peak in the High Peaks Region of the Adirondack Park, and is located roughly on the boundary between the towns of North Hudson and Keene in Essex County, New York. The peak was named in 1837 after John Dix , who was the Secretary of State of New York at the time, and later became the state&#39;s governor.</p><br>
<p>While it stands somewhat south of the main High Peaks region (and in fact is at the center of its own Dix Mountain Wilderness Area) and is more difficult to reach and steep and challenging to climb, the mountain enjoys great popularity with serious hikers not only due to its status as a required peak for Adirondack Forty-Sixers but for open views of the region from its summit, almost as good as those to be found at nearby Mount Marcy with far less crowds.</p><br>
<p>Dix is also the gateway to four other High Peaks in the Dix Range, all of them, unlike Dix itself, officially trailless: Hough, Macomb, South Dix and Grace Peak. One of the most difficult Adirondack peakbagging challenges is to do all five in the same day; while many have, most hikers prefer to break the trips up into separate assaults on Dix and/or one of the others.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was reportedly first climbed by a man named Rykert in the course of surveying the town line.</p><br>
<p>Hikers commonly choose to climb Dix from the south by taking the Elk Lake Trail from the similarly named lake toward Hunters Pass, where a spur leads up to Dix. Less frequently, a lengthy northern ascent can start from the Ausable Club in St. Huberts.</p><br>
<p>Afidnes  is a small town in East Attica, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Oropos, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 34.638 km. It is situated in the eastern foothills of the Parnitha mountains, 3 km southwest of Polydendri, 5 km southeast of Malakasa and 27 km north of Athens city centre. Afidnes has a station on the railway from Athens to Thessaloniki. The Motorway 1  passes east of the town.</p><br>
<p>Ancient Aphidna was one of the twelve ancient towns of Attica. In Greek mythology, Aphidna was the place where Theseus left Helen after he had abducted her. The archaeological site of Aphidnae is small. It was excavated in the 19th century. 13 Middle Helladic tumuli have been found.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Afidnes consists of the following settlements:</p><br>
<p>Afidnes (2011 census pop. 1,908)</p><br>
<p>Agía Triada (959)</p><br>
<p>Drosopigi (156)</p><br>
<p>Kokkinovrachos (195)</p><br>
<p>Kosmothea (131)</p><br>
<p>Stathmos Afidnon (293)</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Beletsi Lake, a small lake on the east slopes of Parnitha, near Afidnes. It is important place for migratory birds.</p><br>
<p>Monastery of Holy Angels, modern monastery near Afidnes</p><br>
<h2>Persons</h2><br>
<p>Callistratus of Aphidnae, an ancient Archon of Athens.</p><br>
<p>Callimachus, the Athenian Polemarch at the Battle of Marathon.</p><br>
<p>Red Mountain Pass elevation 11,018 ft is a mountain pass in the San Juan Mountains of western Colorado</p><br>
<p>in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The pass straddles a divide that separates Ouray and San Juan counties. The pass is named for the nearby Red Mountain on the northeast side of the pass. The name is derived from the iron oxide laden rock that forms their slopes.</p><br>
<p>The pass separates the Uncompahgre and Las Animas River watersheds, and also serves as a dividing point between the Uncompahgre and San Juan National Forests. The pass is traversed by the Million Dollar Highway, USA Highway 550 between Ouray and Silverton, which is part of the San Juan Skyway Scenic Byway.</p><br>
<p>The pass is known for being treacherous in the wintertime due to the steep 8% grade and switchbacks on the north side facing Ouray, though the entire road is paved. Avalanches are frequent, and can block the highway for some time. The lower part of the pass towards Ouray is blasted into near-vertical cliffs of quartzite hundreds of feet above Red Mountain Creek and the Uncompahgre River. This section of road is winding, narrow and has no shoulder.</p><br>
<h2>Mining district</h2><br>
<p>The Red Mountain Mining District lies from the divide northward to Ironton Park, halfway down towards Ouray. It was the site of an historic silver boom from 1882-1893, including the Yankee Girl, National Belle and Guston mines and the towns of Red Mountain and Ironton. Head frames of the old workings are still visible from the highway. The Idarado Mine (Treasury Tunnel) continued until the 1970s, and reclamation of tailings is ongoing.</p><br>
<p>The Romanche Trench, also called the Romanche Furrow or Romanche Gap, is the third deepest of the major trenches of the Atlantic Ocean, after the Puerto Rico Trench and the South Sandwich Trench. It bisects the Mid-Atlantic Ridge  just north of the equator at the narrowest part of the Atlantic between Brazil and West Africa, extending from 2°N to 2°S and from 16°W to 20°W. The trench has been formed by the actions of the Romanche Fracture Zone, a portion of which is an active transform boundary offsetting sections of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.</p><br>
<h2>Oceanography</h2><br>
<p>The trench has a depth of 7,761 m, is 300 km long and has an average width of 19 km and allows for a major circulation of deep ocean basin water from the west Atlantic to the east Atlantic basins. Deep water flow through the trench is from west to east with a rate of 3.6 Sverdrups (million m³/s) of 1.57 &deg;C water.</p><br>
<p>Lower North Atlantic Deep Water (LNADW) is found around 3,600 - below sea level and flows from the Greenland and Norwegian Seas; it brings high salinity, oxygen, and freon concentrations towards the equator.</p><br>
<p>Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) flows below the LNADW and reaches down to the seafloor. Formed around Antarctica, the AABW is cold, has low salinity, and high silicate concentration. As it flows north, it is constrained by numerous obstacles on the seafloor. In the basin on the eastern side of the MAR the Walvis Ridge blocks the northward passage.</p><br>
<p>For LNADW and AABW, the Romanche and Chain Fracture Zones (just south of the equator) are the only deep passages in the MAR where interbasin exchange is possible. As AABW flows through the Romanche Fracture Zone, salinity and temperature increase significantly.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Romanche Fracture Zone offsets the Mid-Atlantic ridge by 900 km, making it the largest equatorial fracture zone in the Atlantic. According to the normal scenario for the opening of the South Atlantic, it is spreading at a rate of 1.75 cm/y and began forming about. North of and parallel to the fracture zone is a transverse ridge which is particularly prominent over hundreds of kilometres east and west of the MAB of the South Atlantic. The western part of the transverse ridge consists of fragments of uplifted oceanic crust and upper mantle. The summit of the transverse ridge is capped by Miocene shallow water limestones that reached above sea level 20 Ma before subsiding abnormally fast. The eastern part of the transverse ridge, however, consists of a thick sequence of stratified material called the Romanche Sedimentary Sequence (RSS). The RSS includes pelagic material from the early Cretaceous (140 Ma) which, coupled with the thickness of the sequence, does not fit with the normal scenario for the opening of the South Atlantic around the Aptian-Albian (125–100 Ma).</p><br>
<p>The transverse ridge separates the present trench from an 800 km-long aseismic valley where the Romanche transform was located until about 10–8 Ma. This transform migration was preceded by a process 25–17 Ma during which the Miocene shallow-water platform mentioned above reached sea level as the transverse ridge was first uplifted, then deformed, and finally buried under the sea.</p><br>
<h2>Biological role</h2><br>
<p>The hydrothermal vents of the MAR support many life forms. The Romanche and Chain Fracture Zones creates a huge gap in the MAR and can act as a "Subsea Berlin Wall" segregating the North Atlantic communities from those in other oceans.</p><br>
<p>Swarms of hydrothermal shrimps reminiscent of those found from northern MAR vent-sites have been found on the northern part of the southern MAR. Bivalve communities have been reported around vents further south. These species await a formal description and it is not known whether or not they represent communities distinct from those on the northern MAR.</p><br>
<p>The flow of NADW through the Romanche and Chain Fracture Zones may serve as a conduit for larval transport from the western North Atlantic to the eastern South Atlantic. For example, the caridean shrimp Alvinocaris muricola inhabits cold seeps in both the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of Guinea, which clearly suggests a gene flow across the Atlantic, but the amount of data is very limited and dispersal pathways are not fully understood.</p><br>
<p>. Photograph taken in 1937 for the Historic American Buildings Survey</p><br>
<p>The Old State House (completed 1796) in Hartford, Connecticut is generally believed to have been designed by noted American architect Charles Bulfinch as his first public building. The State House is currently managed by the Office of Legislative Management of the Connecticut General Assembly.</p><br>
<p>The exterior building and the Senate have been restored to its original Federal style; the Representative&#39;s chamber is Victorian, and the halls and courtroom are Colonial Revival.</p><br>
<p>The Hartford State House is, in appearance, very similar to the Town Hall of Liverpool, England, built in the mid-18th century and perhaps depicted in one of Bulfinch&#39;s architecture books. However, all materials came from the United States. Its first story is 20 feet high and constructed from Portland, Connecticut brownstone. The second and third stories are brick patterned in Flemish bond. The cornice is wooden.</p><br>
<p>The State House has been modified somewhat since it was first built. As originally constructed, the building had neither balustrade or cupola, but the balustrade was added in the early 19th century for the protection of firemen, and the cupola was constructed in 1827 with its bell and John Stanwood&#39;s statue of Justice. An original (1796) stone spiral staircase behind the northern arch, designed by Asher Benjamin, led to the second and third floors; it no longer exists. In 1814, the Hartford Convention was held there. In 1839, the start of the Amistad trial was held there.</p><br>
<p>The building had been in danger of closing in 2008 due to financial constraints. State and Hartford officials have recently signed a 99-year lease placing Connecticut&#39;s Old State House under new management. The lease puts the city-owned historic building under the control of the state Office of Legislative Management.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<p>Exhibits focus on the history of Hartford and important events in Connecticut history. Visitors can also tour the original legislative rooms.</p><br>
<h2>Joseph Steward Museum of Curiosities</h2><br>
<p>The Museum of Natural and Other Curiosities is located on the third floor of the Old State House. The museum features a recreation of Joseph Steward&#39;s original 1798 collection of natural history displays and curiosities.</p><br>
<h2>Haunted reputation</h2><br>
<p>Over the years, several eyewitnesses (mostly staff members) have claimed to experience paranormal activity inside the building. In 2009, the Old State House was investigated by the investigators of TAPS on episode 524 of the Sci Fi Channel program Ghost Hunters. The episode aired on December 9, 2009. Following the investigation, TAPS announced that they captured audio of strange sounds inside the building. Something that sounded like a doorknob being opened was recorded in the Senate Room while no one was in it, and audio of what sounded like a woman sighing was captured in the Steward Museum room when no female team members were present in the building. Before giving a final verdict of "haunted or not", the team plans to head back to the Old State House for a more in depth investigation. So until then, this case remains open.</p><br>
<p>Folgefonna is a collective term for three plateau glaciers in the Hardanger region of Hordaland county, Norway. They are located on the Folgefonna peninsula in the municipalities of Odda, Jondal, Kvinnherad, and Etne. The three glaciers are:</p><br>
<p>Nordre (northern) Folgefonna, with an area of 26 km&sup2</p><br>
<p>Midtre (central) Folgefonna, with an area of 11 km&sup2</p><br>
<p>Søndre (southern) Folgefonna, with an area of 167 km&sup2, making it the third largest glacier in the mainland of Norway.</p><br>
<p>In total, Folgefonna covers about 207 km&sup2; (measured in 2006). On 14 May 2005, Folgefonna National Park was established, protecting the glaciers and the surrounding areas.</p><br>
<p>The glacier is home to a summer skiing resort, located on its northern region. The largest outflow glaciers from Folgefonna are Blomstølskardbreen, Bondhusbreen, and Buarbreen. Since around 1960, Blomstølskardbreen on the southern end of Folgefonna has changed very little. Bondhusbreen and Buerbreen further north were growing in the 1990s, but have been retreating since the year 2000. The glacier is a famous tourist attraction. Most people who visit the town of Odda usually take the walk to Buarbreen (a part of Folgafonna).</p><br>
<p>The melt-water from this glacier is bottled at source to form the product Isklar. The melt-water also goes down the river from Buarbreen down into the lake Sandvinvatnet.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The first element is folge meaning thin layer of snow and the last element is the finite form of fonn meaning mass of snow, glacier made of snow.</p><br>
<p>The Strömsholm Canal  runs from Smedjebacken to Lake Mälaren near Strömsholm. It is 62 miles long with 26 locks. It consists of a string of lakes connected by short manmade cuts.</p><br>
<p>The canal took 18 years to build, between 1772 and 1795, to plans laid out by Johan Ullström. The main reason for it was the transport of iron produced by the many steelworks sited along the length of the waterway.</p><br>
<p>The opening of the Stockholm Wästerås-Bergslagen railway marked the beginning of its decline and today the restored canal is only used by pleasure craft.</p><br>
<p>Stromsholmskanal, Fagersta.jpg|Lock Konung Gustav III</p><br>
<p>Surahammar sluss 1.jpg|Lock Landshövding af Ugglas</p><br>
<p>Västanfors sluss 2013a 01.jpg|Lock Kronprinsessan Victoria</p><br>
<p>Carlxvslussenlookingsouth06280024.jpg|Lock Konung Karl XV</p><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>*McKnight, Hugh, The Guinness Guide to Waterways of Western Europe, Guinness (1978)</p><br>
<p>Isola Bella  is a small island near Taormina, Sicily, southern Italy. Also known as The Pearl of the Ionian Sea, it is located within a small bay on the Ionian Sea; it was a private property owned by Florence Trevelyan until 1990, when it was bought by the Region of Sicily, being turned into a nature reserve, administrated by the Italian branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature. There is a narrow path that often connects the island to the mainland beach. The island has a small and rather rocky beach which is a popular destination for sunbathers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies gifted the island to the nearby town of Taormina in 1806. The island was in 1890 bought from the town by a Ms. Florence Trevelyan, who built a small house facing the sea and imported exotic plants, which thrived in the Mediterranean climate. Subsequent owners kept up the island, until the owner went bankrupt, and auctioned the island in 1990. The island had been noted by conservationists as early as 1983, and it was quickly obtained by the Region and designated as a protected natural site. The island is home to several species of birds, and a few types of lizards.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cargill, known in Māori as Kapukataumahaka, is a volcanic outcrop which dominates the skyline of northern Dunedin, New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>The peak is named for Captain William Cargill, an early leader of the Province of Otago. Māori legend tells of the mountain showing the profile of a prominent warrior, and indeed from Dunedin Buttars Peak and Mount Cargill between them do form the outline of a reclining figure, with the nearby Buttars Peak being the head and Mount Cargill the body.</p><br>
<p>Panoramic views of Dunedin and its surrounding area are visible from the summit, making it a popular, if difficult to access, site. A single rough road ascends to the peak, and several popular walking tracks also ascend the slopes.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cargill is topped by a telecommunications station and mast, the Mount Cargill Transmitting Station. The mast is Dunedin&#39;s tallest man-made structure.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Cargill is situated some 15 kilometres (9 miles) north of the city centre, and dominates the citys northern skyline. It rises to a height of 676 metres (2,218 ft). To the north and east of Mount Cargills peak are several smaller peaks including Mount Zion, Mount Holmes and (most notably) Buttar&#39;s Peak.</p><br>
<p>A rough road from the end of Pine Hill Road provides vehicular access to the summit, and several walking tracks also lead to the top, notably a 4 km walk from Bethunes Gully in North East Valley at the northern end of Dunedins urban area and a 6 km walk though Graham&#39;s Bush, which starts in Sawyers Bay close to Port Chalmers. These tracks pass through regenerating native bush and volcanic outcrops before a sharp climb along the northern flank immediately below the summit.</p><br>
<p>The tracks pass two significant points of interest. One of these is a prominent formation of columnar jointed basalt known as the Organ Pipes. Similar outcrops are found elsewhere in the Dunedin area, at Blackhead near Waldronville and at Second Beach, Saint Clair. The second point of interest is the small temperate cloud forest which dominates the vegetation of the upper slopes. Though not a true cloud forest, in that it is not tropical, it bears many of the hallmarks of true cloud forest, with abundant moss and fern cover under thick low canopy. The cloud forest is protected within a 1.8 km&sup2; reserve, which includes the peak of the mountain as well as several secondary peaks. Although the tracks are easy (but steep), care should be taken by walkers, as the weather conditions on Mount Cargill are notoriously unpredictable and can change very rapidly.</p><br>
<p>The peak is, along with the similarly high Flagstaff one of the highest points surrounding Dunedin, and as such, it is a popular lookout. From the summit, views can be obtained of the entire Dunedin urban area, as well as a considerable stretch of open countryside and much of Otago&#39;s coastline, from Shag Point near Palmerston to Nugget Point in The Catlins. Particularly notable is the view of the Otago Peninsula and Otago Harbour, the entire length of which can be seen from the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Cargill, and the nearby smaller peaks are among the youngest parts of the massive extinct Dunedin shield volcano and was formed some 10 million years ago. Its peak comprises a nepheline phonolite dome, an intrusion through earlier pyroclastics and phonolite flows, suggesting that the volcanic origins of the peak were as a pyroclastic cone, followed by a plugging with the nepheline dome.</p><br>
<p>Buttar&#39;s Peak and Mt. Zion are similar, smaller domes. Mt. Holmes is a more distinct plug, featuring the columnar jointed basalt of the Organ Pipes.</p><br>
<h2>Transmitting station</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Cargill transmitting station sits atop the mountain, broadcasting television and FM radio to Dunedin and the eastern Otago area. The station was completed in 1970, and features a 104.6 m mast, the tallest structure in Dunedin.</p><br>
<p>The following television stations and radio stations broadcast from Mount Cargill:</p><br>
<p>TV One - channel 2</p><br>
<p>TV2 - channel 4</p><br>
<p>TV3 - channel 9</p><br>
<p>C4 - channel 11</p><br>
<p>Freeview&#124;HD multiplex A (TVNZ) - channel 43</p><br>
<p>Māori Television - channel 44</p><br>
<p>Freeview&#124;HD multiplex B (MediaWorks) - channel 45</p><br>
<p>Freeview&#124;HD multiplex C (Kordia) - channel 53</p><br>
<p>Trackside - channel 56</p><br>
<p>Prime - channel 60</p><br>
<p>Channel 9 Dunedin - channel 62</p><br>
<p>Poechos Reservoir is a middle-sized reservoir on Peru&#39;s Chira River in the border area between Peru and Ecuador.</p><br>
<p>Its purpose is to improve the accumulation of water stocks in the upper part of Peru&#39;s Chira basin by flood control, irrigation, drainage and electricity generation.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Poechos Reservoir is situated in the northernmost part of Peru, in the lower flow of the rivers Chira and Piura, about 50 km north of Piura, the capital of the Piura Region.</p><br>
<p>It is located on 4° 3 southern latitude and 80° 2 western longitude at an altitude of 98 m in the Lancones district of the province of Sullana, approximately 30 km from the border with Ecuador.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The system was built in four phases:</p><br>
<h3>Phase 1 (1970 to 1977)</h3><br>
<p>The first phase included the construction of</p><br>
<p>the rock filled Poechos dam (9 km long with a maximum height of about 55 m and a total excavation volume of 9,000,000 m</p><br>
<p>the diversion tunnel built into the bottom outlet with a maximum capacity of 14 m/s</p><br>
<p>the concrete gravitational block of the overflow structure (400,000 m concrete) with radial gates with a total capacity up to, 500 m/s</p><br>
<p>the safety overflow of circa 200 m length with a capacity up to 10,000 m/s</p><br>
<p>the headwater discharge and the headwater channel with a capacity of 70 m/s (8,00,000 m excavation and 1,000,000 m of concrete for channel lining)</p><br>
<p>the channel drainage system in the lower Chira (10,000,000 m excavation in total) flows through over 1,000 structures on the channel network (overflows, outlets, gates, etc.)</p><br>
<h3>Phase 2 (1978 to 1985)</h3><br>
<p>The second phase covered</p><br>
<p>the headwater dam Los Ejedos which is 220 m long with a maximum height of 20 m and a gate capacity of 3,000 m/s</p><br>
<p>the main channel, which is 42 km long and has a capacity of 45 m/s</p><br>
<p>the protecting embankments (60 km long) along the Piura</p><br>
<p>the channel system with supporting structures over an area of 350 km.</p><br>
<h3>Phase 3 (1985 to 1997)</h3><br>
<p>The third phase consisted of</p><br>
<p>the headwater dam Sullana which is 75 m long, has a maximum height of 12 m and has gates with a total capacity of up to 5,000 m/s</p><br>
<p>the headwater channel Norte with a capacity of 25,500 m/s over 56 km which irrigate 150 km</p><br>
<p>the channel Sur which is circa 35 km long with a capacity of 7 m/s for irrigation of about 70 km (in total about 5,000,000 m excavation)</p><br>
<p>about 60 km of dykes along the regulated river bed in the lower Chira flow (about 5,500,000 m of embankment).</p><br>
<h3>Phase 4 (2002 to 2004)</h3><br>
<p>The final phase included</p><br>
<p>the 12.5 MW Curumuy dam and power plant, completed in 2000</p><br>
<p>the 15.4 MW Poechos I Hydroelectric Project which was completed in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Capacities</h2><br>
<p>The capacity of the reservoir is 1,000,000,000 m, its catchment area 14,000 m, its maximum depth 46 m.</p><br>
<p>The irrigation dam is 49 m high and 9 km wide at crest and at its bottom has a conduit to discharge water at a rate of 4 m/s.</p><br>
<p>The original design brief was to revitalise the Piura valley, which was short of water, and provide modern irrigation for approximately 350 km of arable land.</p><br>
<p>The Poechos I Hydroelectric Plant is operated by Sindicato Energético S.A (SINERSA). The Poechos I power house has 15.4 MW in installed capacity and generates 60 GW·h annually for Electronoroeste, the concessionary for energy distribution in northwestern Peru. The power plant is to accomplish a 90% national electrification level of the country by the year 2010 by using a zero emission energy source.</p><br>
<p>Hovedøya is one of several small islands off the coast of Oslo, Norway in the Oslofjord. The island is quite small, no more than 800 metres across in any direction, the total area is 0,4 square kilometre. It is well known for its lush and green nature, with a wide variety of trees, bushes and flowers. For many, many years there was a military base on the island.</p><br>
<h2>The name</h2><br>
<p>The name is from Norse times (Hǫfudøy). The first element is hǫfud head (here in the sense hill or height), the last element is the finite form of øy island. The name is a reference to the top of the hill on the island - at 47 metres it is the tallest point of the inner Oslofjord islands by a good margin. (See also Nakholmen.)</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Cistercian monastery, Hovedøya Abbey, was built on the island, and opened on 18 May 1147. During the Medieval period, the monastery was a leading economical force in the Oslo region. It was, however, closed down before the Reformation after the abbot came into conflict with King Christian II. The military official at Akershus Fortress had the abbot imprisoned and the monastery looted and burned down in 1532. Parts of the ruins of the monastery remain on the island, but much of the stonework was used in the expansion of Akerhus Fortress in the 17th century.</p><br>
<p>The island has also been used for military installations, and former military buildings and artillery remain on the island. When Denmark-Norway became involved in the Napoleonic war, two cannon batteries were built to defend Oslo and Akershus Fortress in 1808 (again using the monastery ruins as a quarry). Four depots for gunpowder were built in 1826 on the high points of the island to ward off intruders, and a fifth was built in 1867. On the eastern half of the island is a Victorian house, popularly known as the "Laboratory". It was used by Director of Armory Ole Herman Johannes Krag, co-inventor of the Krag–Jørgensen rifle in the late 19th century.</p><br>
<p>There was once a large German camp on the island, with several barracks, which would later be turned into National Internment Camp for Women in Hovedøya. Today, only a single barracks from the camp remains, located near the ruins of the monastery.</p><br>
<p>Today the island is a popular destination for tourists and bathers, who can enjoy the island&#39;s natural beauty, scenic pastures, historic buildings as well as fairly benign (for Norway) bathing temperatures.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>The island has an interesting geology, being composed mainly of Ordovician and some Silurian mudstone and limestone. The transition between the two periods is beautifully exposed on the south-eastern tip of the island, illustrating very well the sudden marine transgression that marks the shift between two very important parts of Earths history.</p><br>
<p>Criss-crossing the island is ores of diabas from a major rift event in the Oslo area in the Permian. The diabas has been heavily quarried for building material, and the island can boast about 20 quarries from Medieval to 19th century age. The island has rock dating back to late Cambrian and the eastern parts is littered with erratic boulders deposited during the last Ice Age, thus the island illustrate well the local geological events spanning half a billion years.</p><br>
<p>The mostly sedimentary geology has given the island a very fertile soil, giving it Norways highest biodiversity found in such a small place. A few plant species found on the island do not occur anywhere else in Norway.</p><br>
<p>Due to the geology and natural diversity, the island has been declared a natural preserve. While no part of the island is off limit to the public, collecting plants and taking rock-samples is banned.</p><br>
<h2>Visiting Hovedøya</h2><br>
<p>The island is connected to Oslo by means of two boat routes (lines 92 and 93) which dock on the north side of the island. Service is year-round although it&#39;s only running during daylight and therefore is limited during the winter season. In summer time a small cafeteria right by the monastery ruins is open to the general public.</p><br>
<h2>Curiosities</h2><br>
<p>There is a fox living on the island that is often photographed by internet users and is known to occasionally steal things.</p><br>
<p>Island for which the nearby village of Dalkey is named  the uninhabited island lies about 16 km  south of Dublin3 km  south of Dún Laoghaire harbour. An important site of pilgrimage for centuries, it has been known as "St Begnets Isle" since records began. The earliest reference to Dalkey Island&#39; is from c1782. The Island had a population of 8 in 1841.</p><br>
<h2>Location, situation and access</h2><br>
<p>The island is currently uninhabited but there is evidence of human occupation dating back to the Neolithic period. The remains of field systems, a church, a cairn burial, a gun battery and the Martello Tower still exist. There are two Holy Wells, one on the Western shoreline is known locally as the "Scurvy Well" and is located within a surrounding stone structure. There is also a bullaun stone formed from an earthbound boulder. This may have been used as a pagan alter as it was christianised in the 7th century by carving an early Christian cross on the face. This lies close to the remains of the church. At the Northern extreminity of the Island there is evidence of a deep ditch or fosse that was the boundary of a medieval Promontary Fort. Located less than 300 metres off the mainland, the island comprises 9 hectares (22 acres). From Bulloch Harbour, it is possible to visit the island. Also a regular ferry operates from Coliemore Harbour Calach Mor meaning Big Harbour, during the summer months.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dalkey Island, only 5 minutes by boat from Coliemore Harbour, is an important site of ancient and historic remains. Artefacts from the island, now housed in the National Museum in Dublin, provide evidence that the island&#39;s original occupants were from the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age. Humans continued to use the site through the Neolithic, Iron Age and Early Christian period.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence it was inhabited in the 4th millennium BC (6,000 years ago) and was also used as a Viking base. A number of early Medieval pieces of pottery and glassware were found on the island. Some of these artifacts came from Mediterranean area, possibly Turkey or Greece. It was an important site of pilgrimage in the medieval period as evidenced by the prominence of the island on early maps. One such, Dantis map of Isole Britaniche painted on the wall of the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence (c1560) survives as a remarkable record. It was believed that taking water from the well attributed to the saint could cure scurvy. Recent tests to the water show that it has high levels of vitamin C (the cure for scurvy), probably due to its position below a salt marsh. There are ruins of a church, dating to the 7th century which is named for St Begnet. An older wooden church was probably here before the present stone one was built. Another church in nearby Dalkey also named for St Begnet may have been a base for pilgrims before they crossed the sound to the island. Pilgrim badges&#39; would have been sold in the town which would be eventually sewn into their burial shroud to prove that they had undertaken the pilgrimage, helping their journey through the gates of heaven. On the orders of Henry VIII as part of his dissolution of the monasteries, St Begnets was raided in 1539. The ornaments and plate raised 36 schillings for the crown.</p><br>
<p>In the early Christian period, the town of Dalkey was called Kilbegnet. The earliestt reference to Dalkey Island is to be found on a map printed for Barnard’s New, Complete and Authentic History of England’ printed c1782. This was about the time that the island was becoming a site of British military ordinance. There is also a reference to it on a copy of the Downs survey of about the same time.</p><br>
<p>The church on the island was altered during this period on the east side, when builders used it as living quarters while building the nearby Martello tower and gun battery in 1804.</p><br>
<p>Extensive archaeological excavations took place in the late 1960&#39;s (Liversage) which uncovered evidence of a churchyard and a number of burials. The skeletons were not exclusively male, as has been suggested but they were in the majority in keeping with the fact that it was an early Christian Monastic site.</p><br>
<p>A promontory fort designed to help protect what was the main deep water port for Dublin, now called Coliemore Harbour Calach Mor meaning Big Harbour, in the medieval period. was located at the northern end of the island, its presence still visible today in the form of a ditch. The remains of a child (probably a plague victim) were discovered, discarded rather than buried in the ditch during the 1968 excavation.</p><br>
<p>The remains may also have been that of a young Viking slave (comparisons to the remains found in Llanbedrgoch on Anglesey would suggest this) but accurate dating tests have not yet been carried out.</p><br>
<p>The ruined stone church may be as old as the 7th century and was probably abandoned for a period when the Vikings used the island as a base and there is evidence that the island was used as a slave market during this period. The Annals of the Four Masters says that in 938. Coibhdeanagh, the Abbott of Cill-achaidh, drowned in the sea off the island trying to escape with treasures from the church hidden in his vestments during one viking raid. In the early 19th century the Admiralty erected the Martello Tower, one of eight dotted along the Dún Laoghaire coastline, as an early warning defensive device against the one time threat of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars.</p><br>
<p>A herd of goats, originally put on the island in the early 19th century, remains there today but they are replacements of the original goats who were removed</p><br>
<h2>Waters and leisure</h2><br>
<p>The island is also an ideal spot for fishing, with pollock, coalfish, wrasse and mackerel being caught.</p><br>
<p>The channel between the island and the mainland is very deep.</p><br>
<p>The waters around Dalkey Island are much used for sailing, angling and diving. Rocks known as Maiden or Carraig Rock, Clare Rock and Lamb Island all to the northwest form part of the ridge of the Island. Parts of these rocks are only visible at low tide. The southern end of the Island is a favorite with kayakers especially on the flooding tide. There can be a substantial overfall here and in a south east wind can be extremely challenging for the kayaker. When kayaking around the Island on a flood tide it is easier to go in an anti clockwise direction.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Dalkey Island is home to a colony of seals which has greatly expanded in recent years. Black rabbits and herd of wild goats live on the island also. Birdwatch Ireland have established a colony of Roseate Terns on Maiden Rock just north of the Island and Ireland holds most of the European population.</p><br>
<h2>The Muglins</h2><br>
<p>The Rocks to the east of the Island are known as "The Muglins" and are a different group or chain. These form a danger to shipping and have been fitted with a distinctive beacon. The beacon stands on the site of what was once a gibbot where the bodies of two pirates, Peter McKinlie and George Gidley were displayed following their execution for the murders of Captain Cockeran, Captain George Glas and his family and others on board the ship Earl of Sandwich in 1765. Their remains lie buried under the concrete plinth base of the beacon.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<h2>Other projects</h2><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Antikythera or Anticythera  is a Greek island lying on the edge of the Aegean Sea, between Crete and Peloponnese. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality of Kythera island.</p><br>
<p>Antikythera may also refer to the Antikythera Strait, through which modified Mediterranean water enters the Sea of Crete.</p><br>
<p>Its land area is 20.43 km&sup2, and it lies 38 km south-east of Kythira. It is the most distant part of the Attica region from its heart in the Athens metropolitan area. It is lozenge-shaped, 10.5 km NNW to SSE by 3.4 km ENE to WSW. It is notable for being the location of the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism and for the historical Antikythera wreck.</p><br>
<p>Its main settlement and port is Potamós (pop. 34 inhabitants in the 2011 census). The only other settlements are Galanianá (pop. 15), and Charchalianá (pop. 19). Antikythera is sporadically visited by the LANE Lines ferry Vitsentzos Kornaros on its route between Piraeus (Athens) and Kissamos-Kastelli on Crete.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest known inhabitants (5th or 4th millennium BC) were likely seasonal hunters who traveled there to exploit the presence of migratory birds. The population of the island then changed frequently as it was settled and abandoned several times, including a period of significant influence by Cretan culture during the Bronze Age. In antiquity, the island of Antikythera was known as Aigila or Ogylos.</p><br>
<p>Between the 4th and 1st centuries BC, it was used as a base by a group of Cilician pirates until their destruction by Pompey the Great. Their fort can still be seen atop a cliff to the northeast of the island. The archaeology of the island has been thoroughly surveyed and the data made openly available for further study.</p><br>
<p>Antikythera is most famous for being the location of the 1900 discovery of the Antikythera wreck, from which the Antikythera Ephebe and Antikythera Mechanism were recovered. The Antikythera mechanism is an ancient mechanical calculator (sometimes described as the first mechanical computer) designed to calculate astronomical positions which has been dated to about 205 BC. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until a thousand years later.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Antikythera is a very important stop-over site for migratory birds during their seasonal movements, due to its geographical position and certain features (a longitudinal island, with a north-south direction and very low human impact). Furthermore, the island hosts the largest breeding colony of Eleonora&#39;s falcon (Falco eleonorae) in the world. The importance of Antikythira for studying bird migration led to the creation of Antikythera Bird Observatory (A.B.O) by the Hellenic Ornithological Society. The island also has a large population of wild goats.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Andreas Anagnostakis (1826–1897) physician</p><br>
<p>Lake Abbe, also known as Lake Abhe Bad, is a salt lake, lying on the Ethiopia-Djibouti border. It is one of a chain of six connected lakes, which also includes  lakes Gargori, Laitali, Gummare, Bario and Afambo.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Lake Abbe is the ultimate destination of the waters of the Awash River. It lies at the Afar Triple Junction, the central meeting place for the three pieces of the Earth&#39;s crust, a defining feature of the Afar Depression. Here three pieces of Earth’s crust are each pulling away from that central point, though not all at the same speed.</p><br>
<p>On the northwest shore rises Mount Dama Ali (1069 m), a dormant volcano, while along the southwestern and southern shores extend vast salt flats, 10 km in width. Besides the Awash, seasonal affluents of Lake Abbe include two wadis, the Oleldere and Abuna Merekes, which enter the lake from the west and south, crossing the salt flats. Although the present area of the lake&#39;s open water is 34,000 hectare, recent droughts and extraction of water from the Awash for irrigation has caused the water level of the lake to fall. By 1984, the surface area of the lake had decreased to two thirds of what it was in 1940. During this period about 11,500 hectare of saltflats had formed to the southwest of the lake. Lake Abbe is a hypersaline lake; water containing mineral salts flows but there is no outflow, and pure water evaporates from the surface. It is also known as an "amplifier lake", the water level fluctuating dramatically in response to quite small changes in climate.</p><br>
<p>The Afar people have established a settlement near the lake&#39;s shore. Lake Abbe is known for its limestone chimneys, which reach heights of 50 m and from which steam spews forth. Flamingos can also be found on the waters.</p><br>
<p>The Bajuni Islands  are an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, situated on the southern coast of Somalia, from Kismayo to Ras Kiyamboni . They lie at the northern end of a string of reefs that continues south to Zanzibar and Pemba.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Administratively, the islands are within the Lower Juba region of Somalia.</p><br>
<p>There are six main islands:</p><br>
<p>Chandra (2.95 km²),</p><br>
<p>Chovaye (also spelled Tovai; -0.8720&deg; latitude, 42.1593&deg; longitude) (5.46 km²),</p><br>
<p>Chula (also spelled Tula; -1.0052&deg; latitude, 42.0364&deg; longitude) (1.99 km²),</p><br>
<p>Koyama (6.38 km²),</p><br>
<p>Darakasi (1.99 km²) and</p><br>
<p>Ngumi (2.56 km²).</p><br>
<p>Chula with the village of Ndowa is the only island with a significant population.</p><br>
<p>Other islands of minor importance are: Kandha Iwu, Fuma, Ilisi and the island of Kismayo (actual Kismayo harbor), the latter of which was attached to the coast in 1961 during the construction of Kismayo Port.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands, as well as the extreme southern area of present-day Somalia, were part of British East Africa prior to World War I. They were later transferred to Italy after the war. According to C. Wightwick Haywood, then a British official in Kismayo, who visited the islands in 1913, the only inhabited islands in the chain were Tovai (i.e., Chovaye - the biggest island in the chain) and the nearby Tula (i.e. Chula). Each of these two islands were no more than 3 miles long and a mile across. Maize, millet, sweet potatoes and coconuts were grown. The residents of the islands at the time, whom Haywood thought to be of Arab and/or Persian descent, built dhows, which the British official considered "excellent sea boats".</p><br>
<p>On his 1913 trip, Haywood saw ruins of what he described as a "fair-sized town" on the Tovai (Chovaye) Island. He was impressed by stone carvings, and thought that the ruins had been left by people "of a superior culture" to the residents of his day. He mentioned that somewhat similar stone scrollwork could also be seen on houses in the Lamu Islands in present-day Kenya.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The islands are today mainly inhabited by the eponymous Bajuni people. All Bajuni inhabitants of Koyama island belong to the Nowfali sub-clan.</p><br>
<p>Rend Lake is a 13 mi-long, 3 mi-wide southern Illinois reservoir in Franklin and Jefferson Counties near Benton, Illinois. The lake contains 18,900 acres  of water, stores 185,000 acre.ft of water, and supplies over 15 million gallons of water per day to 300,000 persons in over 60 communities. The reservoir is up to 35 ft deep, but its average depth is closer to 9.7 ft. Its elevation is 405 ft above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Rend Lake is a reservoir, created when the United States Army Corps of Engineers dammed the Big Muddy River. The dam and lake were authorized in 1962, but the lake was not completely filled until March 1973.</p><br>
<p>The lakeshore of Rend Lake extends covers 162 miles (261 km), part of which is preserved as Wayne Fitzgerrell State Recreation Area. Swimming beaches at North Marcum and South Sandusky are managed and maintained by the US Army Corps of Engineers. An adjacent Illinois Artisans Shop & Visitors Center is part of the Illinois State Museum system and is operated by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources. (This facility is currently closed due to lack of funding from the state.)</p><br>
<p>In 2010, Rend Lake was designated as an Important Bird Area of Illinois.</p><br>
<h2>Fishing</h2><br>
<p>Rend Lake is one of the largest lakes in Illinois and is home to some of the top ranked fishing. The Recognized species in Rend Lake are the following :</p><br>
<p>The Danvers State Hospital, also known as the State Lunatic Hospital at Danvers, The Danvers Lunatic Asylum, and The Danvers State Insane Asylum, was a psychiatric hospital located in Danvers, Massachusetts. It was built in 1874, and opened in 1878, under the supervision of prominent Boston architect Nathaniel Jeremiah Bradlee, on an isolated site in rural Massachusetts. It was a multi-acre, self-contained psychiatric hospital designed and built according to the Kirkbride Plan.</p><br>
<p>In spite of being included in the National Register of Historic Places in 1984, the majority of the building was demolished in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Danvers State Hospital was officially opened in 1878 after four years of construction. Nathaniel Jeremiah Bradlee served as the designing architect.</p><br>
<h2>Demolition</h2><br>
<p>In December 2005, the property was sold to AvalonBay Communities, a residential apartment developer. A lawsuit was filed by a local preservation fund to stave off the demolition of the hospital, including the Kirkbride building, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. This did not stop the process, however, and demolition of most of the buildings began in January 2006, with the intent to build 497 apartments on the 77 acre site.</p><br>
<p>By June 2006, all of the Danvers State Hospital buildings that were marked for demolition had been torn down, including all of the unused buildings and old homes on the lower grounds and all of the buildings on the hill. Demolition was done by Testa Corp. of Wakefield, Massachusetts. Despite the anger of many, the historic Kirkbride was also demolished, with only the outermost brick shell of the administration area (along with the G and D wards on each side) being propped up during demolition and construction while an entirely new structure was built behind and inside of it, leaving the historic Danvers Reservoir and the original brick shell. Much of the wood from the demolition project was salvaged and recycled into flooring and other millwork.</p><br>
<p>A replica of the original tower/steeple on the Kirkbride was built to duplicate what was removed around 1970, due to structural issues. (The first picture illustrates the original tower in 1893, the second and third pictures illustrate the new replica in 2006 and 2007, and the fourth picture illustrates the one from 1970.) Avalon Bay predicted that they would have properties available for rent or sale by Fall 2007.</p><br>
<p>On April 7, 2007, four of the apartment complex buildings and four of Avalon Bay&#39;s construction trailers burned down in a large fire visible from Boston, nearly away. Damage was confined mostly to the buildings under construction on the eastern end, but the remaining Kirkbride spires caught fire due to the high heat.</p><br>
<p>The underground tunnel leading up from the power plant still exists, but is blocked at the top of the hill. Only the exterior of the Kirkbride complex was preserved in the demolition, and the cemeteries, several blocked tunnels, and the brick shell of the administration and the D and G wings are all that remain from the original site. Richard Trask of the Danvers Archival Center wrote, concerning the state&#39;s failure to preserve the Kirkbride complex, noting:</p><br>
<p>The failure to protect and adaptively reuse this grand exterior is a monumental blot in the annals of Massachusetts preservation. What might have been a dignified transformation of a magnificent structure which was originally built to serve the best intentions, but at times lost its way through human frailty, now is a mere ghost-image of itself. And we and our progeny are the losers.</p><br>
<p>On June 27, 2014, Avalon Bay Communities, Inc. sold the property for $108.5 M to the DSF Group. The DSF Group released plans for the property to undergo further renovations.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The hospital was the setting for the 2001 horror film Session 9. The asylum was also featured in the 1958 film Home Before Dark.</p><br>
<p>In the book Project 17 by Laurie Faria Stolarz, the plot involves six teens breaking into Danvers to investigate.</p><br>
<p>In the game Painkiller (video game), one of the levels, called Asylum, is based on the central administration section. While the outside is a faithful reproduction, the inside is not.</p><br>
<p>The Danvers State Hospital is believed by literary historians to have served as inspiration for the infamous Arkham sanatorium from H.P. Lovecrafts "The Thing on the Doorstep". (Lovecrafts Arkham, in turn, is the inspiration for Arkham Asylum, a psychiatric hospital within the Batman universe.) It is referenced by name in the short story "Pickman&#39;s Model" and in The Shadow over Innsmouth</p><br>
<p>Rob Delaney, who grew up in Massachusetts, devotes a chapter to Danvers in his memoir, Mother. Wife. Sister. Human. Warrior. Falcon. Yardstick. Turban. Cabbage. Prior to its demolition, Delaney explored the hospital with his mother and uncle.</p><br>
<p>White Nancy is a structure at the top of the northern extremity of the Saddle of Kerridge, predominantly in the Parish of Rainow, overlooking the village of Kerridge and the town of Bollington, Cheshire, England. Since 1966 it has been recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building. Its profile forms the logo for the town of Bollington. As to the origin of the name White Nancy, there are several theories: it may have been named after one of the Gaskell daughters, Nancy, or maybe after the horse that is said to have hauled the table top up the hill.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>White Nancy was built in 1817 by John Gaskell junior of North End Farm to commemorate the victory at the Battle of Waterloo. John Gaskell was a member of the Gaskell family who lived nearby at Ingersley Hall. It originally had an entrance to a single room which was furnished with stone benches and a central round stone table, but the entrance is now blocked. It has been described as a summer house or a folly.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1940s, the Royal Signal Corps Trials Unit based at Catterick would drive a truck-mounted dish-shaped transmitter/receiver up to White Nancy. Here they tested cathode-ray tube transmission and reception (data-based, not images), to a mobile receiving station on another truck. The receiver would be driven further and further south over time, until eventually the lads at White Nancy were sending a signal to the south coast of the country.</p><br>
<p>Locals told the signallers that the landmark was named after the lead horse that had transported all materials for the building of White Nancy.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The structure is circular in plan with its shape described as that of a sugar loaf, and is surmounted with a ball finial. It is built in sandstone rubble which has been rendered and painted. It is about 18 ft high. Stone paving has been laid around its base which is inscribed with the points of the compass.</p><br>
<h2>Painting</h2><br>
<p>Until at least 1925 the structure was unpainted. It has been painted in a number of different colours over the years, most commonly in white. and during the 1980s it was commonly painted at Christmas, decorated as a Christmas pudding or Father Christmas.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, in recognition of the reason for its construction, the structure was painted with a 200th Anniversary of the Battle Of Waterloo motif, and the silhouettes of soldiers in traditional garb from the time. In May 2016 it was returned to its traditional all white with a black finial.</p><br>
<p>In May 2017, by request of the mayor of Bollington, a bee symbol was painted onto the monument to express solidarity with the people of Manchester after the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.</p><br>
<h2>Visitor attraction</h2><br>
<p>White Nancy provides a focus on the ridge of the Saddle of Kerridge and from it there are extensive views across the Cheshire Plain towards the mountains of North Wales to the west, the hills of Shropshire to the south and the Pennines to the north and east. White Nancy and the Kerridge ridge are part of the Gritstone Trail.</p><br>
<p>White Nancy has been acclaimed and has featured in countdowns of the best British follies identified by The Telegraph and by Alan Titchmarsh.</p><br>
<p>The Scarab Club  is an artists&#39; club, gallery, and studio in the Cultural Center Historic District of Detroit, Michigan, located at 217 Farnsworth Street, near the Detroit Institute of Arts and the Detroit Science Center. It was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1974 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>The early years</h2><br>
<p>The Scarab Club was formed in 1907. It began as an informal association named the Hopkin Club after the founder, marine painter Robert Hopkin. The members met regularly to talk art, eat dinner, and critique paintings. The club&#39;s vision since inception was</p><br>
<p>"to promote the mutual acquaintance of art lovers and art workers; to stimulate and guide toward practical expression the artistic sense of the people of Detroit; to advance the knowledge and love of the fine arts in every possible manner; and to maintain a clubhouse for entertainment and social purposes as well as to provide working and exhibit facilities for artist members."</p><br>
<p>Renamed the "Scarab Club" in 1913, the club grew in popularity, and member Lancelot Sukert, a Detroit architect, designed the current clubhouse, which opened its doors on October 5, 1928. The interior of the club is decorated with objets dart created and contributed by members over the decades. The building showcases exquisite tile sculptures from Pewabic Pottery, including the Scarab Club logo. The ceiling beams of the lounge once served as the clubs guest book, and poet Vachel Lindsay signed as one of the first visitors. Since then, signing the beam has become a ceremonial honor, and the autographs of art world luminaries such as John Sloan, Diego Rivera, Pablo Davis, Marcel Duchamp, Norman Rockwell, and John Sinclair grace the beams.</p><br>
<p>The club&#39;s themed costumed balls, held from 1917 to 1950, were the single most important social event in Detroit each year. Life magazine covered the 1937 event with a two-page photo spread, and The Detroit News and The Detroit Free Press also gave the annual balls two pages in their photo sections. Radio station WJR broadcast live from the 1937 "Scarabean Cruise" ball.</p><br>
<p>For many years The Book Club of Detroit held its regular meetings at the Scarab Club.</p><br>
<p>The annual Exhibition of Michigan Artists at the Detroit Institute of Arts was originated by the Scarab Club in 1911. In 1915 the Scarab Club Prize became the top award and in 1917 the first Scarab Club Gold Medal was awarded. The gold medal is still the club&#39;s most prestigious award, given each December at the Gold Medal Exhibition and Dinner.</p><br>
<h2>The building</h2><br>
<p>The clubhouse was built in 1928 in the Arts and Crafts style by architect and member Lancelot Sukert. The exterior mosaic tiles, which appeared in 1928 renderings, were not completed until the 1980s, when they were finished by W.P.A. muralist and member Edgar Yaeger, who was a junior member of the club in 1928. The ceramic scarab embedded over the front entrance was designed by sculptor Horace Colby and fired at Pewabic Pottery.</p><br>
<p>The original paneled wood entry in the front hints at intrigue inside, while a brick-walled courtyard in the rear of the building conjures up more pastoral images, with its exquisite flower gardens, fountain and statuary. The club contains several galleries and lounges, as well as six working artist studios. The second floor lounge is unique for its massive ceiling beams painted by members in 1928 and signed by more than 230 artists since, including Diego Rivera, Norman Rockwell, Marshall Fredericks and Pablo Davis. Other beams were painted to depict events in the club&#39;s history. The lounge also contains a fireplace with mural depicting different levels of club membership, painted by Paul Honoré. Original mica and metal lighting and furnishings complete the decor.</p><br>
<p>Hisarlik , often spelled Hissarlik, is the modern name for the generally agreed site of ancient Troy, also known as Ilion, and is located in what is now Turkey . The unoccupied archaeological site lies approximately 6.5 km from the Aegean Sea and about the same distance from the Dardanelles.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological site of Hisarlik is known in archaeological circles as a tell. A tell is an artificial hill, built up over centuries and millennia of occupation from its original site on a bedrock knob. The assumed location of Troy was apparently well known in the ancient world, and was visited by Alexander the Great. In more modern times, a site associated with Ilium (and more readily identifiable as Hisarlik) was being shown to curious visitors as early as the 15th century, when Pedro Tafur was guided from the Genoese port of Fojavecchia (Phocaea):</p><br>
<p>I traveled by land for two days to that place which they say was Troy, but found no one who could give me any information concerning it, and we came to Ilium, as they call it. This place is situated on the sea opposite the harbour of Tenedos. The whole of this country is strewn with villages, and the Turks regard the ancient buildings as relics and do not destroy anything, but they build their houses adjoining. That which made me understand that this was, indeed, ancient Troy, was the sight of such great ruined buildings, and so many marbles and stones, and that shore, and the harbour of Tenedos over against it, and a great hill which seemed to have been made by the fall of some huge building.</p><br>
<p>Pedro, like most early visitors, was distracted by the more prominent Hellenistic and Roman remains close to the modern shoreline. An alternative site, Hisarlik tell, a thirty-meter-high mound, was identified as a possible site of ancient Troy by a number of amateur archaeologists in the early to mid 19th century. The most dedicated of these was Frank Calvert, whose early work was overshadowed by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the 1870s.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Located at the edge of a cape projecting into the Aegean between the Dardanelles and the Gulf of Edremit, which was known in antiquity as the Troad, Hisarlik was one of many successful pockets of human civilization which arose and prospered in Anatolia. Paleogeographic studies carried out around Hisarlik by John C. Kraft, head of the Geology Department of the University of Delaware and Professors Ilhan Kayan and Oğuz Erol from Ankara University indicate a favourable environment for settlement existed from around the eighth millennium BC, when receding seas left a fertile, well watered plain which over time became a shallow, but navigable estuary. Above this natural harbour, the hill was large enough to support extensive building, providing natural protection from invasion and a commanding view of the sea.</p><br>
<h2>Human settlement in the region</h2><br>
<p>Elsewhere in Anatolia, there is abundant archaeological evidence of a thriving neolithic culture at least as early as the seventh millennium B.C. What may have been the world&#39;s first urban settlement (dated ca. 7500 B.C.) has been uncovered at Çatalhüyük in the Konya Ovasi (Konya Basin). Evidence from a cave at Karain near Antalya shows human occupation in the region extending over an estimated 25,000 year period.</p><br>
<p>While the archaeological record has much to say about the physical remains, it reveals little about the people who built and rebuilt the fabled city of Troy. The historical record for Troy is dominated by the epic poems of Homer and peopled with gods and heroes whose identities and histories formed part of the oral tradition of the area for centuries before the great Greek poet committed some of them to verse.</p><br>
<p>Homer was not, however, overly concerned with history. Not surprisingly, the historical context for the epic Iliad and Odyssey is not as clear as one would wish. Various attempts have been made over time to identify the origins of the inhabitants of Troy.</p><br>
<p>As early as 1946, American Rhys Carpenter argued that the Trojan War, far from being an historical event, was in fact a synthesis of many such events involving peoples whose mutual involvement stretched back centuries. In the Iliad, the word most commonly used for the city of the Trojans is not "Troy" but "Ilion". Carpenter saw this as evidence of the possibility that Troy was not the name of a town at all, but rather the name of an area or district inhabited by the Trojans. The Greeks clearly had a legend about a war against the Trojans, but may have disagreed about where these people lived. At least one group of Greeks put them at a place called Teuthrania in the area known as Mysia.</p><br>
<p>Carpenter suggests that the real "Troy" is located in neither the Troad nor Aeolis but rather that the memory of a pan-Achaean expedition elsewhere was located at two different points in Asia Minor by later poetic traditions: at Ilion by the Ionic poets, because they found in this area a local folk tradition about a strong citadel sacked near the end of the Bronze Age (Hisarlik); and at Teuthrania by the Aeolic poets, to correspond with Aeolic traditions connected with their own occupation of this area.</p><br>
<p>If one is willing to accept Carpenter&#39;s line of argument this far, one can place "Troy" virtually anywhere in the eastern Mediterranean where bands of Mycenaean Greeks may have undertaken joint piratic raids. Carpenter goes so far as to place "Troy" in Egypt and to connect the story of the Trojan War with the raids of the Sea Peoples mentioned in Egyptian sources at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 12th centuries B.C.</p><br>
<p>The tangled and fragile skein of inference in the historical record gives no certainty as to the origin of the inhabitants but the fact remains that for over two millennia a thriving civilisation existed at Hisarlik.</p><br>
<p>Homer&#39;s interest in Troy ends with the fall of the city. Glimpses are recorded of the fallen city, walls burning, looting and destruction and a fleeing populace including Aeneas, carrying his father Anchises away from the scene of devastation and unknowingly into a new and glorious future on alien shores. Troy’s history does not end with the fall of Priam’s city. The history of Troy is inextricably linked with the Bronze Age and later cultures of Anatolia, the name of which is from the Greek word for sunrise, anatole.</p><br>
<p>The inhabitants of Hisarlik lived among a number of vigorous, interactive and often warlike cultures. Apart from the mainland Greeks whence they may have sprung, the Trojans counted such neighbours as the Hittites, Phrygians and Lydians. It has been suggested that the polity at ancient Hisarlik might be one and the same with that known to the Hittites as Wilusa.</p><br>
<p>The unbroken occupation of the region around Hisarlik continued with the arrival of the Romans. Finally, after several centuries of trying, the Greeks gained control of the region once ruled by the Trojans. Around 1050-800 B.C., Ionian Greek refugees fled to Anatolia, to escape the Dorians. Many cities were founded along the Anatolian coast during the great period of Greek expansion after the eighth century B.C. One of these, Byzantium, a distant colony established on the Bosporus by the city-state of Megara, grew to supplant Rome and ultimately proved the downfall of Troy as it dominated all maritime and overland trade for almost 22 centuries.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological excavation</h2><br>
<p>The site of Hisarlik has been under near-constant archaeological excavation ever since Schliemann began in 1873. While much has been discovered about the structural layout of the many layers of occupation, there has been a paucity of writing found from before the classical era. In fact, the only written document heretofore discovered is a small cylinder seal with an inscription in Luwian.</p><br>
<h2>Troy VII</h2><br>
<p>Troy VII is an archaeological layer of Hisarlik that chronologically spans from c. 1300 to c. 950 BC. It coincides with the collapse of the Bronze Age and is thought to be the Troy mentioned in Ancient Greece and the site of the Trojan War.</p><br>
<h2>Hisarlik today</h2><br>
<p>The region around Hisarlik is still inhabited by the descendants of the many and varied peoples who laid claim to the shores and hillsides of Anatolia. Present day Çanakkale is a thriving settlement close to the ancient site of Hisarlik. Çanakkale lies on both sides of the Dardanelles and touches both Europe (Gelibolu Peninsula) and Asia (Biga Peninsula) and just as it was in the time of Homer, maritime traffic connects both sides of the straits.</p><br>
<p>Vernal Fall is a 317 ft waterfall on the Merced River just downstream of Nevada Fall in Yosemite National Park, California. Like its upstream neighbor, Vernal Fall is clearly visible at a distance, from Glacier Point, as well as close up, along the Mist Trail. The waterfall flows all year long, although by the end of summer it is substantially reduced in volume and can split into multiple strands, rather than a single curtain of water.</p><br>
<p>__TOC__</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Etymology</h3><br>
<p>Yan-o-pah (little cloud) was the local name of the fall before it was named "Vernal"- meaning relating to Spring - by Lafayette Bunnell, a member of the Mariposa Battalion in 1851.</p><br>
<h2>Mist Trail</h2><br>
<p>The trail begins at the Happy Isles trail head in Yosemite Valley and travels generally east-southeast. This is one of the shortest (1.3 mi) and most popular trails in Yosemite. The trail is mostly shaded and is progressive in incline until it reaches the base of the waterfall where mist sprays onto the hikers.</p><br>
<p>At times of high flow, mostly in the spring, hikers may be drenched by the time they pass the mist from the waterfall. The final 15 minutes of the trail is a very steep climb up rocks to the top of the waterfall. Once atop the falls there is a pool of water called the Emerald Pool around which hikers lounge and rest. There is also a 20 degree slope of rock with water flowing into the pool called the Silver Apron.</p><br>
<h2>Hazards</h2><br>
<p>Swimming above Vernal Fall carries a great deal of risk: the rocks are slippery, the river has strong undercurrents that may not be visible from the surface, and tourists have been swept over the fall to their deaths. Though swimming there is illegal and warnings to stay out of the water are clearly posted, several deaths have occurred when visitors entered the water above the fall in the vicinity of the Silver Apron and Emerald Pool. Three people died in a single day, on July 19, 2011, after being swept over Vernal Fall in this manner.</p><br>
<h2>Postage stamp</h2><br>
<p>The fall is shown in error on a 1932 Philippines stamp. Although the stamp indicates that it depicts Pagsanjan Falls in the Philippines, it in fact shows Vernal Fall.</p><br>
<p>Mickle Fell is a mountain in the Pennines, the range of hills and moors running down the middle of Northern England. It is 2,585 ft high and lies slightly off the main watershed of the Pennines, about ten miles south of Cross Fell.</p><br>
<p>It is the highest point within the historic county of Yorkshire. It is part of southern Teesdale, which was transferred from the North Riding of Yorkshire to County Durham for administrative and ceremonial purposes under the Local Government Act 1972, and thus is also the highest point in ceremonial County Durham. The highest point in historic County Durham is Burnhope Seat.</p><br>
<p>The name of Mickle Fell comes from the Old Norse word Mikill meaning Great and Fell (or fjäll) meaning mountain or hill.</p><br>
<p>The fell lies in the middle of a large area of boggy moorland and requires a long hike to get to it from any direction. Mickle Fell&#39;s distinctive outline makes it a recognisable object in views from the Lake District hills, particularly Blencathra, the Helvellyn range, and High Street. South of Mickle Fell the ridge descends to the Stainmore Gap before rising again into the Yorkshire Dales.</p><br>
<p>Mickle Fell and surrounding moorland forms part of the Warcop Training Area, a Ministry of Defence firing range. As a result, public access to the fell is limited. It can be ascended from the Eden Valley to the west, or from Teesdale to the east.</p><br>
<p>Marilyns are rare in the North Pennines because of the relative flatness of the moors, but Mickle Fell is one such hill: it is separated from its neighbours by over 200 m of relative height.</p><br>
<h2>High Cup</h2><br>
<p>On the moor to the west of Mickle Fell between Murton Fell and Dufton Fell is a remarkable natural formation known as High Cup — a vast hole in the moorside, similar in form to an elongated crater. A waterfall at the head of the Cup is called High Cup Nick. The feature is well seen from the A66 road. The Pennine Way goes past High Cup on its cross-watershed trek from Middleton-in-Teesdale to Dufton.</p><br>
<p>El Coahuilón is a mountain range located on the southeast side of the Mexican state of Coahuila, extending into Nuevo León. The highest peak in the formation is about 3,460 metres high. These mountains are part of the Sierra Madre Oriental, a system that runs from northeastern Mexico to the south side of the country and that joins with the Sierra Madre Occidental at the narrowest part of Mexico in Tehuantepec, Oaxaca.</p><br>
<p>The landscape at the slopes of El Coahuilón are woodlands; plenty of forest with pine, fir and other evergreen tree species; Pinus ayacahuite (Mexican White Pine), Pinus hartwegii (Hartweg&#39;s Pine), Pinus cembroides (Mexican Pinyon) and Pinus culminicola (Potosi Pinyon); furthermore, this ecosystem has plenty of evergreen oaks and bushes.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, a major wildfire swept through a large portion of El Coahuilón, causing widespread damage to its slopes, but the landscape has begun to recover.</p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>The Slieve Bloom Mountains  are a mountain range in Ireland. They rise from the central plain of Ireland to a height of 527 metres. While not very high, they are extensive by local standards. The highest points are Arderin  at the southwestern end of the range and Baunreaghcong  at the end of the Ridge of Capard.</p><br>
<p>The Slieve Bloom Mountains stretch from near Roscrea in the south west to Rosenallis in the north west forming a link between County Laois and County Offaly. Access to the mountains and the most popular attractions is easiest by taking Exit 18 off the M7 for Mountmellick and following the R422 for Rosenallis, Clonaslee, Cadamstown, and Kinnitty. There are 3 routes which cross the mountain. From Clonaslee here it is very easy to follow the mountain road over &#39;the Cut&#39; towards Mountrath. From Kinnitty take the road from the centre of the village opposite the Catholic Church past Longford Church to Glendine Gap near Ard Erin the highest point in the mountain. For some splendid views turn left onto the R440 towards Kinnitty one of the small villages nestled at the foot of the mountains.</p><br>
<p>Looped walking trails have been developed at 6 trail heads in the Slieve Blooms, Glenbarrow, Clonaslee, Cadamstown, Kinnitty, Glenafelly Forest Car Park and Glen Monicknew. Walking trails are colour-coded green easy, blue moderate, and red most difficult. The 84 km Slieve Bloom Way colour-coded yellow can be accessed from any of these trailheads. In Cadamstown take time to walk the Silver River Eco Trail.</p><br>
<p>Glenbarrow waterfalls are located just a few miles from Rosenallis. Some scenic looped walks will take you to the falls and up onto the Ridge of Capard. There is a significant population of red grouse in the hills.</p><br>
<p>The Slieve Bloom, along with the Massif Central in France, are one of the oldest mountains in Europe; they were once also the highest at 3,700m. Weathering has reduced them to 527m. On a clear day, one can see the high points of the four ancient provinces of Ireland.</p><br>
<h2>Meaning</h2><br>
<p>According to the Bodleian Dinnshenchas, here are two theories of how the mountains were given their name:</p><br>
<p>11. SLIAB BLADMA. Bladma or Blod, son of Cú, son of Cass Clothmín, killed the cowherd of Bregmael, the smith of Cuirche, son of Snithe, King</p><br>
<p>of Húi Fuatta. Then he went in his little boat till he set up at Ross Bladma — Ross n-Áir, “Wood of Slaughter,” was its name at first. Thence he went to the mountain. Hence is “Sliab Bladma” (Bladma’s Mountain). Whence the poet said:‘Blod, son of Cú, son of Cass Clothmín,Killed the cowherd of fair Bregmael,The smith of Cuirche Mór, son of Snithe:He set up at Ross Tíre ind Áir.’Or it is Blod, son of Breogan, that died there; and from him the mountain of Bladma was named.</p><br>
<p>Edward J. Gwynn’s The Metrical Dindshenchas give a longer account and another origin story (bleda mara “sea-monsters” cf. Modern Irish bleidhmhíol “monster; whale”):</p><br>
<p>Sliab Bladma</p><br>
<p>Blod, son of Cu, son of Cass the renowned,son of Uachall the many-shaped,killed Bregmael the famous smith of Cuirche, son of Snithe the swimmer.</p><br>
<p>Curche Cendmar was a daring king over Medraige and over Herot; through him Blod, son of Cass Clothmin,found never sure protection. He fared in his ship–clear purpose from the Bottom of pure-cold Galway, from Ath Cliath in wide Herot to Ath Cliath in Cualu. Thence he came after many a turn to the Point of Nar, son of Edliuc,and possessed, as his special portion, the mountain whose name derives from Blod.</p><br>
<p>A valiant man who used to wage battle died at Sliab Bladma–vast renown even Blad, son of Bregon, with troops of warriors, died of disease in the monster-haunted Sliab Blod.</p><br>
<p>Or, it is from the son of Bregon the wrathful that it is named Sliab Bladma, with onsets of women their increase is not far from the cattle was the mountain where it happened through strong Blad.</p><br>
<p>Or the monsters of the sea that was not calm, beasts–ruisenda was their name–came throughout the land of the tribes, so that from them is named Sliab Bled. Blod, son of Cu, son of Cass Clothmin, slew the herd of Bregmael the smith of Curche, son of Snithe, he settled at Ross Tire Nair.</p><br>
<p>The Modern Irish meaning of bladhm is “flame; flare up”, bladhma being the genitive case.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mountains formed the northern border of the kingdom of Osraige, and later Upper Ossory.</p><br>
<h2>Highest Points</h2><br>
<p>The following table lists the 10 highest major mountain peaks of the Slieve Bloom Mountains, all with a topographic elevation of at least 406 metres (1,332 ft).</p><br>
<h2>Other projects</h2><br>
<p>The Eisenhower Executive Office Building  — formerly known as the Old Executive Office Building  and even earlier as the State, War, and Navy Building — is a USA government building situated just west of the White House in the USA capital of Washington, D.C. Maintained by the General Services Administration, it is occupied by the Executive Office of the President, including the Office of the Vice President of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Located on 17th Street NW, between Pennsylvania Avenue and State Place, and West Executive Drive, the building was commissioned by President Ulysses S. Grant. It was built between 1871 and 1888, on the site of the original 1800 War/State/Navy Building and the White House stables, in the French Second Empire style. While the buildings exterior received substantial criticism, at first, it has since been designated as a National Historic Landmark. It was for years the worlds largest office building, with 566 rooms and about ten acres of floor space. Many White House employees have their offices in the massive edifice.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1802 the Washington Jockey Club lay at the rear of what is now the site of Decatur House at H Street and Jackson Place, crossing Seventeenth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue to Twentieth Street — today the Eisenhower Executive Office Building — having been completed only 4 years earlier in 1798 as the stonemasons had finished the brick and painters applied white paint to the President&#39;s House.</p><br>
<p>The building—originally called the State, War, and Navy Building because it housed the Departments of State, War, and the Navy—was built between 1871 and 1888 in the French Second Empire style.</p><br>
<p>It was designed by Alfred B. Mullett, Supervising Architect. Patterned after French Second Empire architecture that clashed sharply with the neoclassical style of the other Federal buildings in the city, it was generally regarded with scorn and disdain, and Mullett, the exterior architect, ended his life by suicide, while in litigation. The OEOB was referred to by Mark Twain as "the ugliest building in America." President Harry S. Truman called it "the greatest monstrosity in America." Historian Henry Adams called it Mullett&#39;s “architectural infant asylum.”</p><br>
<p>Much of the interior was designed by Richard von Ezdorf using fireproof cast-iron structural and decorative elements, including massive skylights above each of the major stairwells and doorknobs with cast patterns indicating which of the original three occupying departments (State, Navy, or War) occupied a particular space. The total cost to construct the building came in at $10,038,482.42 when construction ended in 1888, after 17 years. The original tenants of the building quickly outgrew it and finally vacated it completely in the late 1930s. The building gradually came to be seen as inefficient and was nearly demolished in 1957. In 1969, the building received the highest recognition possible, becoming a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>In 1981, plans began to restore all the "secretary of" suites. The main office of the Secretary of the Navy was restored in 1987 and is now used as the ceremonial office of the Vice President of the United States. Shortly after September 11, 2001, the 17th Street side of the building was vacated and has since been modernized. The building continues to house various agencies that compose the Presidents Executive Office, such as the Office of the Vice President, the Office of Management and Budget, and the National Security Council. Its most public function is that of the Vice Presidents Ceremonial Office, which is mainly used for special meetings and press conferences.</p><br>
<p>Many celebrated national figures have participated in historical events that have taken place within the Old Executive Office Building. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Lyndon B. Johnson, Gerald Ford, and George H. W. Bush all had offices in this building before becoming President. It has housed 16 Secretaries of the Navy, 21 Secretaries of War, and 24 Secretaries of State. Sir Winston Churchill once walked its corridors and Japanese emissaries met there with Secretary of State Cordell Hull after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.</p><br>
<p>Presidents have occupied space in the EEOB as well. Herbert Hoover worked out of the Secretary of the Navys office for a few months following a fire in the Oval Office on Christmas Eve 1929. President Dwight D. Eisenhower held the first televised Presidential news conference in the buildings Indian Treaty Room (Room 474) on January 19, 1955. President Richard Nixon maintained a private "hideaway" office in room 180 of the EEOB during his presidency, from where he preferred to work, using the Oval Office only for ceremonial occasions.</p><br>
<p>Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was the first in a succession of Vice Presidents who have had offices in the building. The first wife of a Vice President to have an office in the building was Marilyn Quayle, wife of Dan Quayle, Vice President to George H.W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>The Old Executive Office Building was renamed the Dwight D. Eisenhower Executive Office Building when President Bill Clinton approved legislation changing the name on November 9, 1999. President George W. Bush participated in a rededication ceremony on May 7, 2002.</p><br>
<p>A small fire on December 19, 2007 damaged an office of the vice-presidents staff and included the VP ceremonial office. According to media reporting, the office of the Vice Presidents Political Director, Amy Whitelaw, was heavily damaged in the fire.</p><br>
<h2>Notable persons to have offices in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building</h2><br>
<h3>Presidents</h3><br>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt - while Assistant Secretary of the Navy</p><br>
<p>William Howard Taft - while Secretary of War</p><br>
<p>Herbert Hoover - temporary offices after White House fire</p><br>
<p>Franklin Roosevelt - while Assistant Secretary of the Navy</p><br>
<p>Harry S. Truman - temporary offices during reconstruction of the White House</p><br>
<p>Dwight Eisenhower - while assigned to the Army General Staff</p><br>
<p>Lyndon Johnson - while Vice President</p><br>
<p>Richard Nixon - had "hideaway" office</p><br>
<p>Gerald R. Ford - while Vice President</p><br>
<p>George H.W. Bush - while Vice President</p><br>
<h3>Vice Presidents</h3><br>
<p>Hubert Humphrey</p><br>
<p>Spiro Agnew</p><br>
<p>Nelson Rockefeller</p><br>
<p>Walter Mondale</p><br>
<p>Dan Quayle</p><br>
<p>Albert Gore</p><br>
<p>Richard Cheney</p><br>
<p>Joseph Biden</p><br>
<p>Michael Pence</p><br>
<h3>Secretaries of State</h3><br>
<p>John Hay</p><br>
<p>Elihu Root</p><br>
<p>William Jennings Bryan</p><br>
<p>Cordell Hull</p><br>
<h3>Secretaries of War</h3><br>
<p>Henry L. Stimson</p><br>
<p>Russell A. Alger</p><br>
<p>Newton D. Baker</p><br>
<p>Patrick J. Hurley</p><br>
<h3>Army Chiefs of Staff</h3><br>
<p>John M. Schofield</p><br>
<p>Nelson A. Miles</p><br>
<p>John J. Pershing</p><br>
<p>John L. Hines</p><br>
<p>Charles Summerall</p><br>
<p>Tasker H. Bliss</p><br>
<p>Peyton C. March</p><br>
<p>Douglas MacArthur</p><br>
<p>Malin Craig</p><br>
<p>George C. Marshall</p><br>
<h3>Secretaries of the Navy</h3><br>
<p>John D. Long</p><br>
<p>Josephus Daniels</p><br>
<p>Charles J. Bonaparte</p><br>
<p>Charles F. Adams III</p><br>
<p>Frank Knox</p><br>
<h3>Senior Navy Officers</h3><br>
<p>George Dewey</p><br>
<p>William S. Benson</p><br>
<p>William S. Sims</p><br>
<p>Ernest J. King</p><br>
<p>William D. Leahy</p><br>
<p>Harold R. Stark</p><br>
<p>Robert E. Coontz</p><br>
<p>Farsala , known in Antiquity as Pharsalos , is a city in southern Thessaly, in Greece. Farsala is located in the southern part of Larissa regional unit, and is one of its largest towns. Farsala is an economic and agricultural centre of the region. Cotton and livestock are the main agricultural products, and many inhabitants are employed in the production of textile. Farsala is famous for its distinctive halva, but even more so for its significance in ancient history.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Farsala lies at the southern edge of the Thessalian Plain, 4 km south of the river Enipeas. The Greek National Road 3 (Larissa - Lamia) and the Greek National Road 30 (Karditsa - Volos) pass through the town. The Palaiofarsalos railway station (litt. "Ancient Pharsalus"), on the line from Athens to Thessaloniki and head of the, is located in the village of Stavros, 12 km to the west. Farsala is located 38 km south of Larissa, 41 km east of Karditsa, 44 km north of Lamia and 49 km west of Volos.</p><br>
<p>The municipality Farsala has an area of 739.74 km, the municipal unit Farsala has an area of 121.433 km, and the community Farsala has an area of 57.928 km.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient Pharsalos</h3><br>
<p>The Homeric Phthia of the Mycenaean period, capital of the Kingdom of the Myrmidons and of Peleus, father of Achilles, has sometimes been identified with the later city of Pharsalos (Greek: Φάρσαλος), now Farsala. A Cyclopean Wall which protected a city still exists today near modern Farsala, as does a vaulted tomb from that period.</p><br>
<p>The Pharsalos of the historic era was built over a hillside of the Narthacius mountains at an elevation of some 160 m, where modern Farsala stands. It was one of the main cities in Thessaly and was the capital of the Phthian tetrarch. In the Persian Wars it sided with the Athenians. A distinctive tribe of the city was that of Echecratidon. In the early 4th century BC, the city was a part of the Thessalian Commons. Later, it joined the Macedonian Kingdom under Philip II. The area became a theatre of war where the Aetolians and the Thessalians clashed with the Macedonians, especially during the Second and the Third Macedonian Wars. After the defeat of the Macedonian Kingdom, Pharsalos and the whole area became a part of the Roman Republic.</p><br>
<p>The whole area suffered great destruction during the Roman Civil War. The Battle of Pharsalus, where Julius Caesar defeated Pompey and changed the course of the Roman Republic forever, took place in 48 BC in the fields of the Pharsalian Plain.</p><br>
<p>The geographer Strabo speaks of two towns, Old Pharsalos, Παλαιοφάρσαλος (Palaeopharsalos) and Pharsalos, existing in historical times. His statement (9.5.6) that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Skotoussa, was “near both the Pharsaloi, the Old and the New”, seems to imply that Palaeopharsalos was not itself close by Pharsalos. Although the battle of 48 BC is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers – the author of the Bellum Alexandrinum (48.1), Frontinus (Strategemata 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) – place it specifically at Palaeopharsalos. In 198 B.C. Philip V had sacked Palaeopharsalos (Livy 32.13.9). If that town had been close to Pharsalos he would have sacked both, and Livy would have written “Pharsalus” instead of “Palaeopharsalus”. The British scholar F. L. Lucas demonstrated (Annual of the British School at Athens, No. XXIV, 1919–21) that the battle of 48 BC must have been fought north of the Enipeus, near modern-day Krini. It has been suggested that Krini was built on the site of Palaeopharsalos, where the old road south from Larissa emerged from the hills on to the Pharsalian Plain.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Farsala</h3><br>
<p>Farsala was known as Çatalca during Ottoman rule. Following the Treaty of Berlin the city became part of the Hellenic Kingdom together with the rest of Thessaly in 1881. During the first Greco-Turkish War (1897), a major battle took place in the vicinity of Farsala.</p><br>
<p>The contemporary town has no historical or medieval buildings left as a result of a world war 2 bombardment and a catastrophic earthquake that struck the area in 1954. Small scale urbanization processes attracted population from surrounded villages during the 80s and 90s creating an urban landscape typical of Greek cities with small apartment buildings in nearby plots of land.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Farsala was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 4 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Enippeas</p><br>
<p>Farsala</p><br>
<p>Narthaki</p><br>
<p>Polydamantas</p><br>
<h2>Province</h2><br>
<p>The province of Farsala (Επαρχία Φαρσάλων) was one of the provinces of the Larissa Prefecture. It had the same territory as the present municipality. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
